Lecture 10: Nature and types of Religious and other sites

追加: 2026-05-09

[00:00:17]Namaskar.

[00:00:19]Welcome to the SOAM course, an introduction to field archaeology method and practices. This is module number two, nature and type of archaeological sites and this is the last lecture of module number two entitled nature and types of religious and other sites. So in this lecture we are going to see the structural antiquities found all across India and this can be categorized from various religious sets. So we will start our journey from rock cut architecture notably Buddhist Jane and Hindu structures especially the caves. Then we are also going to see the religious structures of this Buddhist, Jane and Hindu religion. And we will see the type like a stupas, temples, viharas of Buddhis and Jane sects. We're also going to see the temples of Buddhis Jan and Brahmanical. And we're also going to see the other structures like educational institutions at Nalanda and Mikramshila and other sites we are going to see the megalithic burial and the other sacred sites. So this whole presentation is divided into two parts.

[00:01:43]One is the religious sides and this can be the structural identity of the religion has been found in form of stup especially the Buddhist and Jan in very rare the rock cut caves of all Buddhist jan and brahmanical sects the monastic complex and the temples and uh other sites are categorized as uh teaching institutions. s Nalanda, Vikram Shila and burial and memorial sites. However, it can be also mentioned the fortified and the urban site which is already discussed in the previous lecture. So let's start uh what we are going to see in this particular presentation that we are going to see the sites which are structurally available in Indian subcontinent and most of them are found in archaeological excavations. site like stupas, monasteries are basically buried inside the mounds which are come across from archaeological excavation whereas the uh rock cut caves are uh in a good condition are found right from the barabar to the dean area temples and the other structures. So the we will start our presentation from the stupa and the stupa is a hemispherial mount. It's basically uh related to the Buddhism.

[00:03:12]However, one or two specimen of stupa related to the giant sect are also found in Matura. So, this Buddhist stopa is a very basic architecture and very plain engineering skill required for construction of the stupa. It's a hemispherial mount surrounded by a railing with gateways at the later stage known as a toran having the production of pad and often built on uh with the help of mud then uh bricks and sometimes stones and there are several stupas and the notable arei bharut amradi and so on the monasteries known as a vihar are specifically the house for the Buddhist monks, mud as well as Jan monks. These monestic complexes they are structurally made having sails a tiny room uh with assembly halls and with the prayer area found in rock cut architecture as well as structural areas and near about the stupas the as the stupa side like a Sachi Amraati Sarnat all bears the vihara complexes nearby the rock cut caves shows was the very primitive stage of architecture where these caves were excavated into the natural rock and this used for religious uh accommodation or religious worship and the monastic life. This decorated with the carving inscription and mural in the later stage and dedicated to the different sects like Ajiwag, Buddhist, Jane, Hindu and others. These caves are found from from the Bihar at Nagarjuni cave and the most of the caves are found in the western dean area of the basaltic plateau. Then we are also having the structural evidence of temples. These are made of stones, bricks and the rock cut uh structures are also available dedicated to Buddhist, Jan and Brahmanical sects and the temples are found all across India and they are very uh small to massive in architecture.

[00:05:37]Then we are also having the James Tupas mosque and tombs and burial and memorial sites etc. So let's start from the Buddhist religious sites. So the Buddhist sites are basically two structural component are found in the early historic period are stup and the vihar. The stup and vihar are basically connected with the monks and their worshiing place. And these are also divided into two parts of rock cut caves where the monastic complex was situated. And this monastic complex then further constructed by in a structural form. So we are also having both the references in India. So Buddhist tupa is the very prominent place for Buddhism and the Buddhist tup known as a worshiing center and this is built as a relicary mount to enshrine the relics of Buddha also other reverend monks. Usually this structure features a solid hemispherical mound shown in this picture known as under and the main structure resting on the raised platform known as a mi. This is the first stage and this is the second.

[00:06:58]This supa most of the time surrounded by the square railing known as a vika. This can be a compound wall. Then sometime it can be accessed via very intricately carved gateways known as a turan. In case of sachi we are having the four turan from four direction very beautifully made. This over the time of this tupa architecture the structure evolved and several new feature has been added and it's also seen the regional variation in north and the south India.

[00:07:34]In south India stupa has their own stylistic feature. The early stupas say after the time of fifth century BCE were made by mud. It was very simple in plan. By the course of time during the time of Ashoka this mud stupa was replaced by the burnt bricks tupas and in the later uh shunga satwhan and kusan period this bricks were replaced by the stone and the decoration were added. So this shows the development future in architecture and this tupa represent the Buddhist philosophical symbolism and it contains the very uh vital role in the spread of Buddhism all across India and Southeast Asia. So many stupa has been found uh and the stupa most of the time found in archaeological excavations and the earliest stupas found in India is the pipasu situated in Uttar Pradesh dated to 5th century BCE. This stopup is quite older contain the hemispherial heap of mud shows is a very early structure.

[00:08:48]Then we are having the number of stupas found all across India and the notable are the Sachi in Madhya Pradesh, Bhut in Madhya Pradesh, Amraati in Andra, Quesarya in Bihar, Nalanda in Bihar, Dhame and Dharajika in Up Sarnad, Chawhandi in Sarnad and Rambhar in Kushinagar. These are the few stopups were very much important because this place most of the places were reported in Buddhist literature. Apart from this main stopa we are also having the reference of other important stopupas like a sarnad piparbaha kushi nagar kowshami shawasti dur kotar and several other sites from north India, south India, east India and west India where the Buddhism was spread and the its structural identity is found in form of stoops.

[00:09:41]Apart from stoop we are also having the rock cut cave complexes denotes the Buddhism and the earliest this rock cut structure shows the earliest example of structural activity in India. This showing the development how the wooden structure were directly carved on the rock and it began with the rock cut caves at Barabber Hills of Bihar and this shows the development of structural activity as well. These rock cut caves used for communal living, meditation, teaching and study purposes for the monks. Subsequently is represent key pilgrimage sites sometimes honor Buddha's life events promote the spread of Buddhist teaching and most of the time these sites were situated on the trade route. The house features execute murals and sculptures in the western part of Maharashtra where we are also having the paintings and the icons related to the Buddhist stories and Jatka tales. The period of this rock cut caves started uh during the Morian period and lasted uh near about 1,000 years. The religious coexistence of Buddhist, Hindu and Jane caves are found all across the western dean area shows the socio-religious life and the patronage pattern present among the society when we are having the reference of royal merchant and common people who were donating for construction of several caves and the several caves caves has been found all across the Maharashtra and some part of Karnataka and the most famous caves of India uh related to the early stage of construction are Barabar cave in Bihar, Bhaja cave in Maharashtra, Nasi cave in Maharashtra, Ajanta cave in Maharashtra, then Udagiri, Kandagiri, Bed Kaneer, Carla and thousands of caves are there which shows how These sites were chose in Buddhism and sometimes Janism as well and this is the Lumasi cave uh situated in Bihar area. This is the very important cave which shows how the primitive style of art was reflect on the stone and this cave marked the further development of cave architecture in India. This cave was constructed during the time of Morian period. And in this uh area uh the other caves we are having the evidence of Ashokan inscription uh mentions that one of the caves was uh donated to the Aji sect. So shows that apart from the Buddhist and Jen there were a people who were living and residing at some of the cave complex at the Barabar hills.

[00:12:47]So what are the main feature of Buddhist monasteries when we see they were designed primarily as a residential as well as meditation complex for Buddhist monks. It generally features multiple rooms opening into the central hall or corridor. This include the main prayer hall chya sometimes in the western Maharashtra and they contain assembly hall libraries and the other structures related to the daily activities and we are also having this structure in the rock cut caves as well as structural component as well and these are the few pictures I obtained from Wikipedia shows how this rock cut architecture started from Barabar hill reached to the Maharashtra with a new development and added features.

[00:13:37]These are a few Buddhist monastic sites.

[00:13:40]Uh the reference of structural Buddhist monastic site has been found in Sarnad, Kushi Nagar, Kawosambi, Shraasti, Rajgir and several other sites. And the important sites are drawn here. Sarnat to Nalanda and these are the few architectural remains still exposed maintained by archaeological survey of India at Sarnad Shawastan Washali give us a glimpses of how these monks were residing at the monastic complex and this complex were situated very close to the stupa structure you can observe in this picture let's move towards the Jane sect like Buddhism Jane sect was also established at the same time and they were also having the similar structural identity. the stupas which was related to the Buddhism but the very rarely we are found the stupa which is associated with the giant sect and kankali tila at uh matura where the excavation was conducted in the British period revealed the architecture of of the stupas which was denates to the giant sect and this is the very rare example it established that in the ancient period the stupa was also constructed by Jen people to worship like a Buddhist people.

[00:15:11]So main feature of the Jen Tupa of Kankalita was very very important. It was a similar like a Buddhist tupas found in Sarnad and Takashila and they're having some uh very interesting decoration. They're cylindrical multitri structure unlike the Buddhist tupa. The Jensen Tupa has a peculiar cylindrical shape and elongated drum. It was structured in three tires. One separation. The tire were separated by the railing vika and the decorated bands. They're also having the high platform based ornate gateways suran like a sachi. And the ayapata which is having the standing pillars are the peculiar style of the jupas. The supas also having uh the images of giant titankar which were displayed at the front size and sometimes inscription are also found and these are the original picture of kankalita and shows that how this stupa was planned executed and decorated. Similar to the uh Buddhist sects, giant sect has also their own monastic complexes which is constructed on the rock cut and which is also shows that how the giant sadhus living in this rock and the references has been found in Udagiri kandiri son Bandar cave in Bihar Sitha Nasal cave in Tamil Nadu badami cave in the chalukan period cave number 30 to34 and several their caves and what are the main features of Buddh Jen monasteries. So unlike the large size Buddhist monasteries, Jen monastic sales are generally smaller and more austere without a large assembly hall surrounded by them. The doorways to the sails are frequently smaller and sometimes requiring the occupant to bend or crawl enter. So shows that the size of the sail as well as the size of door were tiny as compared to the Buddhist sail and many of the earliest monasteries were simple caves found at Udiri Kandagiri shows that it was very simple in plan. Subsequently in the latest phase where they were having some bigger size and with some later additions.

[00:17:40]The Jane monasties has been found in several sides. I already mentioned that Son Bandar, Udagi, Kandagiri and other areas and these are the few pictures of the Jane monasteries found in all across the India and these are the few temples as well.

[00:17:59]uh after the stupas structural supas and rocket architecture the third stage of architecture was temple and we are having the temple constructed for Buddhist jan as well as brahminical sects so let's start with the Buddhist temple and the evidence of Buddhist temple is found in Mahabhi Bihar and this is the only surviving example of temple dedicated to the Buddha. So the Mahab Buddhi temple is a very famous and a very important temple because it was constructed at the right place where Buddha achieved enlightenment and this temple is a UNESCO world heritage site and it's having the several architectural component it having the main temple possibly constructed during the Gupta period and having the pre Gupta structures like a vajarasan bodhi tree and other component associated with this site showing the continuity right from the premorian to the early medieval period.

[00:19:03]Then related to the giant sect we're also having the number of temples constructed right from the early period to the early medieval medival and they are found all across India and the prominent are Meguti Jen temples found in Karnatak and the gent temples of Dilwala of Rajasthan are very important and decorated shows the continuation of and the spread of Janism.

[00:19:34]Let's move towards the Hindu temple complexes and in Hindu we are also shows the development like a Buddhist change where the rock cut caves were initiated for the first time then rock cut caves were and temples were started construction and then at the later stage we are having the structural temples. So the rock cut caves the evidence of rock cut caves has been found in the southern India in the dynasty of Palawas where we are having the rock cut caves initially and the rock cut temples was also found in that area during right from the Gupta period we are having the evidence where the rock cut caves were constructed then no cut caves to temples was started at Mahabali Puram in the Dvidian style and the saratas are a very great example how the structural time was evolved and decorated and developed and at the last stage we are having the structural temples found all across India and uh the decorated elements was started and developed from the Gupta period. So we'll see the structural temples of Hindu uh sect uh of India and in Hindu sect we have divided this temple into five main segment Shiva, Vishnu, Sorya, Ghanapatya and Shaki. So the Shiva as a prominent god uh they're having the several temples of Shiva constructed all across India and it is uh started from the Gupta period where the Nagara style was initiated. Soon in the Palav era the temples has been started construction for the Shiva. And then we are also having the evidence from in the Chol dynasty where the massive temple structure like a brihydeshwar was constructed dedicated to the Shiva and the temples of Shiva are thousands in number but the brave prominence are a few has been mentioned here. The Kaleshwar temple supposed to be the earliest one. uh datable to 2nd century BCE. Then we are having the other caves and temples like a Bhumia Shiva temple of Odisa and Mahabareshwar temple and the most notably the Allora cave number 16 constructed during the period of Rashtakut shows how the massiveness was appeared where the whole massive uh basaltic rock was cut from top to bottom. And we are also having the several temples constructed by several dynasties. For example, we are having temple in the Palawa dynasty, Chalukas, Cholas, Rashtrautas, then Chandel, Parmar, uh, Gaharwal and several other. The Shiva temples has been found all across the India and the temple are still standing in the particularly in South India at at Kajurahu and in the eastern India.

[00:22:36]These are the few example. This is the picture of Lingar Raja temple of Bhneshwar which is a very massive and beautifully Kolinga architectural temple situated in the Bhineseshwar. Shows the how the shism spread in that area and this is one of the largest temple in whole Indian subcontinent known as a Raj Rajeshwar. Today we known as this temple called this temple as a briadeshwar situated in the Tamil Nadu area and one of the most beautiful and intact temple of north India dedicated to the Shiva known as a kandara Mahadevo at Kajuru.

[00:23:13]It's a one of the finest specimen of Nagar style architecture shows how the dynasties were patternaging to the shism and constructed beautiful temples. The temple were not only reflecting the spread and the uh influence of Shiva but also shows the popularity and the mythological association in temple art and architecture which is reflected in form of uh sculptures, mythological stories and also give us finest example of socioeconomic perspective of that particular era. Then in the brahminical sect we are also having the uh temples dedicated to the Vishnu found all across India and they're also having the reference of rock cut architecture rockut caves and the structural temples dynasties like a pala patronage to the Vishnu temple they are having reference of Shaw temple at Mahabalipuram and then the several other dynasties were also constructed the Vishnu temples and the prominent uh temples are the uh Vasuv temple which is Vasuv mentioned in the heliodoras pillars of Madhya Pradesh giving the date of 2nd century BCE shows how this vishnavism has uh their uh significance in the area of Madhya Pradesh and we are also having the reference of uh Vishnu aar during the Gupta period where and where the several aar like a uh vah Aha, three vikram uh wman etc were erected by the Gupta king and they're also having their temples as well as the rockat architecture. For example, Udiri cave give of Madhya Pradesh give us the very finest example how this wnivism was originated and associated with the mythological text and it also shows the spread of wnivism from the core area to the other part of India. It also uh very much popular in the early medieval and medieval period and the dynasties like Chaluka, Pala, Panda etc. Chandel, Rashakut were also constructed several Vishnu temples in their territory. These are the few example of Vishnu temple and this is a temple from Kajur Rahu where the life-sized images of Vishnu has been found.

[00:25:43]Then the shi was also very popular sect among the uh early medieval period and several temples of shism has been found and they are found in Parvati temple of Nacha, Madhya Pradesh, Dura temple, Ayhole, Karnatak and Bimal temple, Kamaka temple which is very popular.

[00:26:05]Their temple has been found all across and sometime they are having the uh very tantric uh worship center as well and a one of the very important temple has been found in uh Odisa and this is the very important uh architectural style depiction as well.

[00:26:27]Then Surya was a very popular deity and the temple of Surya has been found from very much beginning. We are having the reference of surya right from the Gupta period and then the massive structural complex has been dedicated to the surya and they are found all corner of the India and the very prominent uh surviving surya temples are today found in the martan sun temple at Jammu and Kashmir and uh katarmal sun temple at Uttarakhand. We are having the Modera beautiful sun temple at Gujarat and the Konak Sun temple at Odisa are a few examples where the uh which shows the Surya god was very much popular during this period. Then the Gpat was again a very popular sect though the temples clearly dedicated to the Gpati are very few but uh their icons from the temples are reflecting the popularity of these sects. So we are having a several structural component of Buddhist Jan and Hindu sects spread all across the India shows the importance of these sides and the present the political condition of that period. Apart from the religious side let's move towards the uh other sites and in other sites we are going to see the uh ceremonial sites known as the megalithic burials. So Megatic burials are the sites are found in Vindha, Kashmir and whole dean. They are iron age sites and they are found in the very area where the stone resources are available. This picture are taken from the windan area and different types of memorial burials are found here. These are known as a cane. Cane with a cyst.

[00:28:22]cyst where the chamber found inside.

[00:28:24]This is the chamber and these are basically erected for the memory of the deceased or the died person. Initially when someone was died in the their family they were buried inside the inside the earth and uh they covered the body by soil and then such kind of uh earth and stone structure was erected upon it. Uh this was a very traditional practice and we are having the thousands of sides of Megatic period shows this was a very peculiar tradition giving the ceremonial giving the ceremonial idea about the iron age people and these are found all area of India where the stone are available and this is known as a cane very very popular type which is very simple the person was buried inside and uh over the burial the soil was uh kept and over that the heap of stone was arranged in a circular formation. So this is a cane. This is again a cane.

[00:29:34]This is a one of the symmetry which are taken from the vindhan area.

[00:29:39]This is again the burial known as a cane. And sometimes we are also having the table kind of chamber at the center known as a cyst.

[00:29:51]This is the typological variation. And inside the burial the excavation provided very important data uh of this period. So generally a single person was buried most of the time. However, the excavation also uh give us the idea about the uh twin burials were also buried sometimes. And this is picture from Mahuri in Vidharba Maharashtra area where the uh male and female were buried in a single burial possibly died at the same time and the they were also buried with their items. We are also found the iron uh sails iron axe and pottery could have been uh uh used by the people or it can be believed that these people need their afterlife. So these people were believing life after that concept and therefore they were they were burying dead in a very uh uh sophisticated manner and giving the all accessories which could be useful uh to her or him in a afterlife concept. So these kind of structures are found and give us a quite fair idea about the ancient Indian history that reflect in this material culture. So this is the end of my presentation. Thank you.