How the Ottoman Empire's 623 Years of Absolute Power Finally ENDED in Europe

[00:00:00]Let me take you on a quick journey, one that stretches across seven centuries [music] and reshapes the entire map of Europe.

[00:00:08]Because when we talk about the conflict between [music] Christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire, we're not talking about a single battle or one [music] dramatic siege. We're talking about a slow burn collision between two worlds. A collision powered by ideas just as much [music] as armies. It's a story of dynasties and crusades, of holy wars and shifting alliances, [music] of betrayal, resilience, and survival. A conflict that shaped the borders, the religions, and even the identities of Europe and the [music] Middle East for almost 700 years. But the same institutions that [music] lifted the Ottomans to the height of their power are the very things that would eventually drag them down.

[00:00:55]Welcome to your daily history channel, Great History, where we bring you the forgotten moments, the hidden motives, and the dramatic [music] turning points that shape the world. If you're new here, hit subscribe so we can keep exploring these [music] epic stories together every single day. And once those cracks began to spread through the empire, the entire story of Europe started to shift in ways almost no one at the time could have predicted. Let's begin. You've got to imagine the region around the year 1300. We're talking about the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, Western Anatolia, a crossroads where empires used to tower like mountains. But by the late Middle Ages, those mountains were eroding fast. The Bzantine Empire, once the great Eastern Roman colossus, was hanging on by its fingertips. Its treasury was thin, its armies thinner, and entire provinces had slipped away like sand through open fingers. To the north, the Serbian and Bulgarian empires, once proud and powerful, had splintered into pieces. a chessboard where the major players are suddenly missing half their pieces.

[00:02:16]Every move becomes desperate. Now drop into that picture a tiny frontier principality in northwest Anatolia. Just a scrap of land really, maybe a few thousand fighting men. This was the bayike of Osman I, a Turkman frontier warlord. And that tiny little principality didn't stay tiny for long.

[00:02:40]From Osman's time until 1481, the Ottomans expanded almost nonstop.

[00:02:47]If you looked at a map year by year, it would feel like watching ink spread across a page. They pushed into Anatolia, swallowing rival Turkish states. Then they poured into southeastern Europe. One region after another fell. Not because the Ottomans were unstoppable, but because their neighbors were unbelievably weak at exactly the wrong moment. It almost feels like the wind itself was behind them. The Ottomans didn't rise just by swinging swords. They needed something deeper to hold this machine together. A story, an ideology, a reason for every raid, every campaign, every new frontier. That's where the idea of Gaza comes in. Gaza in this context doesn't simply mean holy war. In the early Ottoman world, it was more like a flexible all-purpose justification, a way of telling warriors on the frontier, "Your raids are part of a higher mission." Because, let's be clear, Osman's early forces weren't a polished Imperial army. Far from it.

[00:03:59]They were a patchwork of Turkman nomads, adventurers, and even, yes, Greek Christian fighters who joined simply because raiding meant wealth. These men didn't care about building an empire.

[00:04:13]They cared about opportunity.

[00:04:16]So, how do you keep a group like that loyal, motivated, moving forward instead of turning on each other? You give them a story bigger than themselves. The Ottomans did exactly that. They took something that had begun as opportunistic frontier rating and reframed it as an ongoing mission sanctioned by religion and state. And later Ottoman historians writing generations after Osman systematized this origin story into a full-blown founding myth. The Ottomans were righteous warriors divinely appointed to push into Christian lands.

[00:04:55]A mindset that would fuel almost seven centuries of conflict to come. And this of course raises the next big question.

[00:05:04]One will get too soon. Once you build an empire on endless expansion, what happens when the expansion slows or even stops? Once the Ottomans got their foothold in Europe, they came in with a string of victories that felt to the Christian kingdoms of the Balkans like the walls were collapsing one after another. Take the Bulgaria Ottoman Wars for example. By the late 1360s, the Ottomans were pressing deep into Bulgarian territory. Two names pop up again and again in the Chronicles of the Time. Pliv and Star Zagora.

[00:05:43]Both fell in 1369. [music] And this wasn't some small frontier raid. These were major regional centers with defensive walls, garrisons, supplies. When both cities fell in the same year, it sent a very clear message.

[00:06:00]The Bulgarians could no longer hold the line. Then came Sophia.

[00:06:06]Sophia didn't fall until 1382.

[00:06:10]But that delay wasn't because the Bulgarians were suddenly stronger. It was because the Ottomans were juggling multiple fronts at once. When they finally committed, Sophia folded into the empire. At that moment, the Ottomans essentially cracked open the central route into the Balkans.

[00:06:30]Imagine a gate the size of a valley swinging open permanently.

[00:06:35]And yet, even these victories weren't the moment that truly broke Europe's confidence.

[00:06:41]That moment came a little later. If Europe had a final desperate attempt to push the Ottomans back, it happened at Necopoulos in 1396.

[00:06:51]This was almost a greatest hits collection of Europe's powers. Knights from France, Germany, and Burgundy, fleets from Venice, and the hardened armies of Hungary leading the charge.

[00:07:01]Some chronicles put the crusader force at around 15,000 to 20,000 men, while the Ottoman side under Baazid I may have fielded 30,000 to 40,000 including Serbian heavy cavalry allies. On paper, the crusaders had the elite heavily armored knights, men who trained since childhood, men in shining plate armor worth more than a peasant's lifetime earnings. But heavy armor doesn't help much when you're charging uphill into a trap. The Ottomans utterly shattered the crusader coalition. Many nobles died.

[00:07:38]Others, like the French noble Jean de were captured and ransomed, for some so enormous you could buy entire towns with the money. After Necopolis, something snapped. Europe's united front dissolved. and Bulgaria. That was the end of the second Bulgarian Empire. It simply ceased to exist as an independent state. But maybe the biggest shift happened in the mindset of Europe itself. And this is where things get interesting.

[00:08:10]Before this, Crusades were about Jerusalem, the Holy Land, that massive project running from 1095 to 1291.

[00:08:20]But by the late 1300s, even the pope saw something new on the horizon. In 1394, Pope Bonafice I 9th issued a formal call for a crusade, not to reclaim the Holy Land, but to defend Christian Europe itself against the Ottomans.

[00:08:40]Think about that for a second. The definition of a crusade had shifted completely. Now the Holy War wasn't across the sea. It was at Europe's doorstep. And with every Ottoman victory, that fear wasn't theoretical anymore. All of this leads us to the moment where the ground really shakes.

[00:09:01]May 29th, 1453.

[00:09:05]Constantinople, the city Europeans had called the queen of cities for a thousand years, finally fell. The siege lasted 55 days and Sultan Memed II, only 21 years old at the time, threw everything he had at those walls. And not just manpower, he had technology that felt almost futuristic by medieval standards. The Ottomans used massive cannons, including one bombard reportedly over 25 ft long, firing stone balls that weighed hundreds of pounds.

[00:09:40]Day after day, those walls, walls that had stood since the Roman Empire was still young, shook under constant bombardment.

[00:09:49]Inside the city, the defenders were a mix of exhausted Byzantine soldiers, Genoies mercenaries, and Venetian volunteers.

[00:09:58]Some estimates say they had fewer than 7,000 fighting men left. Against an army perhaps 10 times their size, they never really had a chance. And once the city fell, the world changed. Not just politically, symbolically. Mechmed ordered that the Haga Sophia, the largest church in Christrysendom at the time, be converted into a mosque.

[00:10:23]Overnight, the center of the Eastern Christian world, became an Islamic imperial capital. But here's the twist you don't always hear. The fall of Constantinople didn't just end something. It began something.

[00:10:38]With the city gone, the last ancient buffer that had separated the Islamic world from central Europe evaporated.

[00:10:47]Nothing stood between the Ottomans and deeper expansion into the continent. And meanwhile, something else happened.

[00:10:55]Something subtle but enormous.

[00:10:59]Greek scholars fleeing the fallen city carried with them manuscripts, knowledge, ideas. Many of them settled in Italy. And historians often point to that movement, this sudden surge of Greek intellectuals into the West as one of the sparks that helped ignite the Renaissance. By the middle of the 1400s, the Ottoman Empire had stopped being just a fast expanding frontier state. It was becoming something much more organized, almost machine-like. And from the mid 15th century straight through to the end of the 17th, that machine reached its peak. This was when the Ottomans pushed all the way to the gates of Vienna, controlled most major routes in the eastern Mediterranean, and ruled over something like 25 to 30 million people at various points. The real secret behind this rise was the creation of an internal system, part military, part bureaucracy that let the empire function like a tightly controlled organism. And the heart of that system was something very unusual. When Ottoman officials rode into a Balkan village, places like Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, they gathered boys anywhere from 7 to 20 years old. Most of these kids came from Christian families and they [music] weren't taking dozens. In many years they took thousands. This was the dev sherme literally the collection. It sounds brutal and it was in many ways.

[00:12:35]The boys were taken to Istanbul, converted to Islam, circumcised, taught Turkish, and placed into a training pipeline that could last for years.

[00:12:45]Many of these boys grew up to be some of the most powerful men in the empire.

[00:12:51]From the 1400s to the 1600s, a huge share of the Ottoman Empire's grand vazers, the equivalent of prime ministers, came through this system. So did the elite infantry corps, the janiseries. They were the backbone of the Ottoman army, the first truly professional standing infantry in Europe. And in this odd twist of imperial logic, the Christian communities that supplied these boys sometimes ended up protected by the very janiseries taken from their villages generations earlier. Money flowed back.

[00:13:31]Influence softened. Resistance weakened.

[00:13:35]It created this complicated network of loyalties, part fear, part opportunity, that helped stabilize a multithnic empire stretching over three continents.

[00:13:47]The Janiseries started as a kind of monastic military order, no wives, no private property, no side jobs, just training and discipline. By the 1500s, people in Europe knew them for something very specific, their gunfire. While much of Europe still treated firearms like exotic gadgets, the Ottomans mass-roduced them and drilled their janiseries to use them with icy precision.

[00:14:15]These were the men who stood in the front line shouldertosh shoulder, firing in coordinated volleys. And when they [music] weren't fighting, they were stationed as garrisons in frontier towns or patrolled the streets of Istanbul as a kind of elite police force.

[00:14:34]Together, the Dev Shirmy system and the Janisary Corps formed the central nervous system of the empire, pulling manpower from the edges, feeding discipline into the center. But of course, not everything went smoothly.

[00:14:51]One of the most dramatic examples of local resistance came from a man named Scanderbegg.

[00:14:57]Around 1443, an Albanian nobleman, Gurgi Castrioti, who had actually served inside the Ottoman military, suddenly rides home, tears up his oath to the Sultan, and declares a rebellion. This alone would have been annoying, but Scanderbegg wasn't just any rebel. He built the League of Lege, rallied Albanian clans that usually couldn't agree on anything, and dug in for an astonishing 25 years of [music] resistance. And here's where the numbers matter. Those two and 1/2 decades forced the Ottomans to pour troops, money, and attention into a rugged corner of the Balkans, just as they were gearing up for bigger campaigns against Hungary [music] and Venice. It delayed Ottoman consolidation along the Adriatic by a full generation.

[00:15:51]Even though Scanderbggg died in 1468 and the Ottomans eventually captured the crucial fortress of Shkodair in 1478, that delay had already reshaped their strategic timeline.

[00:16:06]A reminder that even small countries, if they fight stubbornly enough, can change the course of empires.

[00:16:14]And then came the Ottomans greatest age under Sultan Sullean the Magnificent.

[00:16:20]Reigned from 1520 to 1566.

[00:16:24]He's the one who completed the conquest of the Kingdom of Hungary after the catastrophic battle of Mohhatch in 1526 where the Hungarian army was crushed so completely that the king himself drowned trying to flee. Once Hungary collapsed, the road to Austria opened. Just 3 years later, in 1529, the Ottomans marched all the way to Vienna and laid siege to it for the first time. At the same time, a huge part of that conflict was actually shaped on the Mediterranean Sea. And out there on that wide blue water, the two sides fought some of the most dramatic naval clashes of the entire early modern world. By the mid 1500s, the Ottomans were a full-blown naval powerhouse.

[00:17:17]The moment that really showed this, almost like their peak power moment came in 1560 at the Battle of Gerba. a large Christian fleet composed of ships from Spain, Venice, the Papal States, and others, sailing with confidence into the waters off North Africa. And then the Ottomans sweep in. The fighting was fast, decisive, and brutal. By the end of it, the Ottomans had smashed that fleet, capturing or destroying so many ships that European observers compared the scene to a floating graveyard. For a brief moment, the Mediterranean really did look like an Ottoman lake. Just 5 years later, in 1565, the Ottomans launched one of the most ambitious sieges of the century, the Great Siege of Malta. The defenders, the Knights Hospitaler, a military order whose whole job was to fight the Ottoman expansion. And the numbers looked ridiculous. The Knights had only a few thousand defenders. The Ottomans brought [music] in tens of thousands of troops, artillery engineers, and the works.

[00:18:26]Malta should have fallen in a matter of weeks, but it didn't. The knights dug in, fought like cornered animals, and held the island piece by piece. Every fort, every wall, every little peninsula [music] became a last stand. And somehow, almost impossibly, they survived. When Ottoman troops finally pulled back, exhausted and bleeding, it wasn't just a military loss. It was a psychological one. Malta was the door the Ottomans needed to push deeper into the Western Mediterranean. And now that door had slammed shut. Then came [music] the real turning point, Leanto. 1571.

[00:19:09]More than 400 ships crowded into the Gulf of Patras. The Holy League, a coalition organized by Pope Pius V, lined up on one side with its massive galleys and even heavier Giases. On the other side, the Ottomans, proud and confident from decades of dominance. And what happened that day was unlike anything before or after. It was the last huge battle in the West, fought almost entirely with orpowered ships.

[00:19:39]Thousands of men clashed at point blank range. Ships were boarded, captured, set on fire. And by the time the smoke cleared, the Holy League had won a stunning victory.

[00:19:52]For Christian Europe, Leanto shattered the old fear, the belief in the real Turkish superiority and at the same time wiped away that quiet sense of inferiority that had hung over Christendom for decades. Now, was it a fatal blow to Ottoman strategy overall?

[00:20:11]Not really. They rebuilt their fleet within a year. But the psychological balance had changed forever. While all these sea battles were going on, the Ottomans were doing something just as interesting on land. Something most people barely hear about.

[00:20:30]I'm talking about the special vassel system they used with Wakia and Mulavia.

[00:20:36]Unlike Bulgaria, Serbia or Bosnia, places that were fully absorbed into the empire, Wakia and Mulavia kept their rulers, their courts, and their internal laws. They were tributary states. They paid the Sultan, pledged loyalty, but stayed semi-independent.

[00:20:57]First, the land was poor. Compared to the rich Balkans, Wakia and Mulavia were rugged, forested, and not exactly overflowing with easy tax revenue. The people were tough, too. Famously stubborn and rebellious. Full annexation meant more soldiers, more administrators, more fortresses, more headaches. When the accountants in Istanbul ran the numbers, the math was simple. The cost of ruling these places outright was higher than the money you'd make from them. That's only half the story. These two principalities sat right between the Ottomans and the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, a powerful Christian state to the north.

[00:21:41]By keeping Wakia and Mulavia semi-independent, the Ottomans created a buffer zone. Any invasion from the north would have to pass through these lands first, taking the hit before reaching the empire's core territories.

[00:21:58]So, the Ottomans got tribute, a loyal ruling elite, and a geopolitical cushion. All without having to garrison the region with thousands of troops. A pretty smart deal when you think about it. Now, look back at Vienna, specifically the year 1683.

[00:22:16]This was the second siege of Vienna. And at the time, that city [music] was the gateway between east and west. If you controlled Vienna, you controlled the Danube, the giant river that worked like a highway straight into the heart of Europe. And this time, the Ottomans weren't just testing the defenses like they had in 1529.

[00:22:38]They came with a full invasion plan.

[00:22:41]We're talking around 150,000 Ottoman troops marching into central Europe, dragging artillery, siege engineers, and enough supplies to feed a small country.

[00:22:53]Inside Vienna, barely 15,000 soldiers were holding out, squeezed between hunger and disease. For weeks, the Ottomans hammered the walls, digging tunnels under the city and packing them with explosives. Vienna was one bad night away from falling. But then something unexpected happened. A relief army showed up. An army people didn't think would ever cooperate.

[00:23:21]The Holy League. At a glance, it looked like a strange alliance. The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth teaming up with the Holy Roman Empire. Two major powers that weren't exactly friends. And yet here they were, marching side by side to save Vienna. The combined force led by King Jan Soieski of Poland charged down from the hills on September 12th, 1683.

[00:23:48]Soy's cavalry, the famous winged Husars, launched what many historians called the largest cavalry charge in history. By the end of the day, the Ottoman army wasn't retreating in an orderly fashion.

[00:24:02]They were collapsing, chased, hunted all the way back toward the Danube. And here's the part that really matters.

[00:24:10]After this defeat, the Ottomans never gained another inch of territory in the West. Their long push into Europe was over. But the loss outside Vienna did something even more damaging. It cracked the system from the inside. For centuries, the Ottoman military economy worked like a machine fueled by conquest. Victories brought in land, gold, prisoners, [music] taxes, fresh income to pay armies and keep the state running. Historians call this the Gazi economy. And once the conquering stopped, so did the cash flow. A country built around constant expansion, suddenly unable to expand. That's what happened. Revenues began shrinking. The treasury struggled to pay soldiers.

[00:25:02]Inflation kicked in and the institutions that once made the empire strong began to break down. Take the Janiseries.

[00:25:12]These guys were originally the elite, handpicked through the Devsheremy system, trained from childhood, disciplined, loyal only to the Sultan.

[00:25:23]But by the 1600s, everything had loosened up. They were allowed to marry.

[00:25:29]Many started running businesses on the side. Some meddled directly in politics.

[00:25:35]They even murdered Sultan Osman II in 1622.

[00:25:41]And when the government ran out of money and delayed their pay, you could almost count down to the next riot. The taimar system, the backbone of the Ottoman cavalry, was falling apart, too. Tears were land grants [music] handed to CPA cavalry men in exchange for military service. But with gunpowder weapons becoming the center of modern warfare, heavily armored horsemen weren't as useful anymore. Worse, many taimars were being seized by powerful elites and turned into private estates. That meant fewer cavalrymen, fewer taxes flowing back to the state, and more corruption.

[00:26:21]Costs kept rising, income kept shrinking. Eventually, the empire had to invent a new system of long-term domestic borrowing called just to stay afloat. It was basically the Ottoman version of raising money by selling long-term shares of tax revenue, a sign that the old system could no longer pay for itself.

[00:26:44]And all of this was happening while the outside world was getting stronger.

[00:26:49]After 1683, the Ottomans weren't negotiating from a position of strength anymore. They were being forced into the European diplomatic system like a player who no longer picked the rules, just followed them. The Treaty of Carowitz in 1699 was the first real shock. The empire lost huge territories. Most of Hungary and Transylvania went straight to the Habsburgs. that shifted the balance of power in central Europe almost overnight. Then came Pasarovitz in 1718.

[00:27:25]More losses, Belgrade, large parts of Serbia, Ultania, and the banat of Teisvar.

[00:27:34]But even more important was what these treaties meant. For the first time, the Ottomans were accepting the western idea of fixed borders and binding international agreements. That was a big step away from their earlier worldview where borders moved with the army and legitimacy came from [music] constant expansion.

[00:27:55]In other words, they weren't fighting for Gaza anymore, the ideological mission that once tied together every raid, every campaign. They were now doing what European states did, negotiating losses, signing treaties, adapting to a diplomatic order built by others.

[00:28:15]And while all this was happening on the battlefield and in the chancellaries of Europe, there was something else unfolding, something cultural. For 700 years, Europeans wrestled with the Turkish question. Who were the Ottomans? What did they represent? Were they a threat, a mystery, a mirror?

[00:28:39]During the Renaissance, many scholars leaned heavily on medieval [music] Christian writings about Islam to explain the Ottoman rise. The Turk [music] became a stock character, sometimes exotic, sometimes terrifying, often depicted with moral flaws or exaggerated sexuality. But as people traveled more, pilgrims, merchants, diplomats, knowledge slowly replaced fear. Travel journals like itinerate terra sanctai started giving Europeans firstirhand descriptions of Ottoman cities, customs and daily life. By the 19th century, the image [music] had changed again. The Ottoman world became romanticized in European literature.

[00:29:24]Lord Byron's poem, the ga is a good example. He used a Turkish slur for infidel to spin a tragic tale full of forbidden love. violence and dark beauty. It was fear and fascination woven together. Even architecture reflected this back and forth. Ottoman builders like Mimaran borrowed from Hagia Sophia and Bzantine models to shape the grand mosques of the classical age. Later during the tulip era, Ottoman architects blended European Baroque elements back into their own designs. It was a two-way exchange even during times of war. [music] By the time we get into the 19th century, the decline of the Ottoman Empire became one of the hottest topics in European politics. They even had a name for it, [music] the Eastern question. And that name basically meant, [music] "What on earth do we do when this giant empire sitting right in the middle of Europe and the Middle East starts falling apart?"

[00:30:32]Things get complicated because the Ottoman decline didn't happen cleanly.

[00:30:37]It produced a tangle of alliances and rivalries that eventually helped set the stage for World War I. But before we get there, let's talk about why the system inside the empire began to crack. For centuries, the Ottomans had managed their incredibly diverse population through something called the millet system. It was pretty practical. Instead of forcing everyone into a single legal or religious mold, the empire let major religious communities, Greek, Orthodox [music] Christians, Armenians, Jews, and others run many of their own affairs. That system worked surprisingly well for keeping the peace as long as people identified primarily through religion.

[00:31:23]But then came the 19th century and something new started spreading across Europe. nationalism. The millet system didn't recognize nations. It recognized religions. So while Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, Albanians, Armenians, and Arabs all began defining themselves as nations with territorial aspirations. The Ottoman bureaucracy still saw them simply as members of their religious milit. It was a mismatch that couldn't last and the cracks opened wide. One by one, nationalist movements in the Balkans surged. Greece in the 1820s, Serbia later in the century, Bulgaria not long after.

[00:32:10]Russia pushed hard from the north, presenting itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians. Then came a huge shock, the Russo Turkish War of 1877 to 1878.

[00:32:27]To give you a sense of scale, the fighting displaced hundreds of thousands and shattered Ottoman control of the Balkans. The consequences were massive.

[00:32:37]Romania gained independence. Serbia gained independence.

[00:32:42]Montenegro gained independence.

[00:32:45]Then Bulgaria became practically independent overnight. And with the power vacuum widening, even communities that had never seen themselves as political actors, like the Albanians, began to fear their homeland would simply be carved up. That fear became the spark for Albanian nationalism, something completely new at the time.

[00:33:09]But the real breaking point was still ahead. By the early 20th century, four Balkan states, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece, saw their chance.

[00:33:21]If they joined forces, they believed they could finish what centuries of warfare had started. And they were right. In just a few months, they pushed the Ottomans out of almost all of Europe. It was stunning. Nearly 600 years of Ottoman presence on the continent ended in less than a year. But here's the twist. Once the Ottomans were gone, the unity of the Balkan League evaporated instantly.

[00:33:48]The fight stopped being Christian versus Ottoman. Now it became Christian versus Christian. Each state fighting the others for Macedonia and any leftover territory. You can almost see the shift happening in real time. The religious frontier that had shaped Europe for centuries collapsed. And what replaced it was a battlefield of nationalism.

[00:34:12]A battlefield that would bleed directly into World War I. By 1914, the Ottoman Empire was desperate. The old military systems had decayed. The economy had collapsed. The empire was deep in debt.

[00:34:27]Their only remaining hope was to weaponize ideology again. This time through a call for jihad. The idea was simple. If Muslims living under British and French rule from India to North Africa rose up, the Allies would be overwhelmed.

[00:34:45]But it didn't work. A few uprisings happened, but nothing on the scale the Ottomans and their German allies were counting on. The empire was fighting a modern industrial war with pre-industrial institutions, and it showed. And when the first world war ended in 1918, so did the empire. By 1922, it was officially gone, replaced by the Republic of Turkey and a whole patchwork of new states in the Balkans in the Middle East. If you've made it this far, thanks for sticking with me.

[00:35:19]History is long, messy, and full of unexpected twists, but that's exactly why it's worth exploring. If you enjoyed this breakdown, hit the like button so YouTube knows this is the kind of history people actually want to see.

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