LIVE NOW! Cellular Structure and Functions | Complete Cell Biology Lecture | Anatomy & Physiology

[00:00:04]Okay. Uh ladies and gentlemen, you are welcome. So uh we are all welcome back and in today's lecture we are going to specifically discuss more on cellular structure function. So uh let me share the slides for for our discussion.

[00:00:41]So this is the slide and I hope you can all see my slides and can you listen to me please? Can you hear me?

[00:00:53]Hello. Can you hear me?

[00:00:58]Okay gentlemen uh of course as I mentioned we are going to look at the concept of cellular structure and function.

[00:01:14]So starting okay so thank you very much.

[00:01:18]So cellular structure and function that is what we are going to look at and starting with the concept of the cell.

[00:01:25]So what cell when we said cell ladies and gentlemen is a basic structure and the function living organisms. So all living organisms that you are seen on earth is as a result of the functions and the structure of the cell. Meaning that is what make life possible and if there is no cell.

[00:01:46]So the functional and the structural real unit of each and every living organism in a cell sorry is a cell.

[00:01:55]There is no cell there is no life. If there's a problem with a cell then there would be a disease and of course I think in some of our classes we discuss on the different types of disease and the of course the major causes of the disease.

[00:02:11]So what I want you to understand ladies and gentlemen is that if you have problem with your liver is as a result of the problem of the cells of the liver.

[00:02:24]If you have problem with the brain is because of the problem of the cells that are found in the brain which are like neurosytes, ganglio, astroytes, all other cells that are found in the liver.

[00:02:42]So sorry all our cells that are found in the brain. So life is all about cell. If there's a problem, if that is a disease is because of the problem of cell. So the functional and the structural unit of life is a cell. And then very importantly as you can see from here all cells are arise from free existing cells. So what does that means?

[00:03:10]Cells or yeah cells come from a cells.

[00:03:14]There is no way that human cells can give rise to cat cells.

[00:03:21]There is no way that human cells will give rise to and we have different types of cell. We have different types of cells at number one we call proaryotic cells and then we also have we have proarotic cells and then we have what we call ukarotic cells. So what is proaryotic cells ladies and gentlemen when you said proarotic cells it means as cells that have yeah when you say proaryotic cells are cells that doesn't have true nuculus cells are cells that doesn't nucleus and membrane bound organers I hope that there is no any problem and the network is going perfectly Are you seen all the slide and everything?

[00:04:18]Yes.

[00:04:26]Okay. So now types of cell we have what you call procarotic cells and we have you.

[00:04:37]Okay. The network is bad. Okay. So I think let me switch Okay.

[00:05:22]So as I was saying ladies and gentlemen when we are talking about cells we have different types of cell. We have two types of cell. We have proarotic cells and we have what you call ukarotic cells. So when we say proaryotic cells there are cells that the first thing that need to come in set proarotic cells there are cell that doesn't have a membrane bound or like for example uh we have mitochondria membrane so that doesn't have mitochondria it doesn't have endoplasmic reticle so that is what we call procar ukarotic cell. So when we said proarotic cell no two nucleios and no membrane bound organ and that is what make the procarotic cells differ from of course the proarotic cells. So that's what make the differences between the two the procarotic cells and the ukarotic cells.

[00:06:28]And then very importantly at the same time the ukarotic cell they has nucleus and they have membrane bound organ.

[00:06:37]And usually the proarotic cells are smaller and simpler and then for the ukarotic cells they are usually larger and complex. So very importantly sometimes when I giving when I'm giving lectures in biochemistry or in biology I usually used to give some of this example like for example when we are talking about living organisms we have to look at the concept of evolution and that is why a scientist called the dozai confirmed that he confirmed that there is no light in biology without understanding evolution.

[00:07:22]So the first living organism that exists on earth is bacteria which is known as bario and it happens around 3.9 billion years ago. So bacteria is the first organism that exists on earth and it exists and typical examples of ukarotic cells and then we have animals and fungi all these are examples of ukarotic cells. So then the next thing is the functions of cells. What are the functions of cells?

[00:07:55]We talk about that of course we so what are the functions of the cell protections?

[00:08:03]Cells form barriers and protect the body from injury and disease. So if you look at a cell, we have what you call a cell membrane. So the cell membrane is a barrier that form from a cell.

[00:08:20]And the major functions of this cell membrane is to protect the body from injury and diseases. So that's why I think we need to look at animal cell. This is a typical structure of animal look at the structure of animal cells and then the next one is the function.

[00:08:41]So you see this is the cell membrane as you can see it clearly. So the major functions of cell membrane although this is just a brief description the cell membrane it controls what enters and what leaves the cells. So generally there are different biome substances some are important to our cells and some like for example let's say let's say as human you inhale bacteria and you inhale sorry is you inhale bacteria carbohydrate and you digest it and you already have so it is actually the role of the cell membrane glucose to get into the cell because glucose is a nutrient and it's needed by the cell to provide sufficient ATP for the surv that particular cell.

[00:09:33]So that's the most important thing that you need to understand. And then bacteria they are generally pathogens some of them and they cause disease. So it is the work of the cell membrane not to allow the bacteria to get into the cell. So that is why one of the major function of the cell membrane is to controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

[00:09:58]So that is it. And then uh ladies and gentlemen, apart from then apart from the plasma membrane then this one we have what you call nucleus. So the nucleus controls is considered as a control center of the cells and it contains DNA. So generally ladies and gentlemen when we are talking about the of course the cell we need to look at the nucleus. So it controls us.

[00:10:44]So it considered as a control center of a cell.

[00:10:48]When we mean control center of the cell, it means that all and every activities that are taking place in the cell is controlled by the nucleus. So that is the most important thing that you need to understand.

[00:11:00]So apart from the nucleus, ladies and gentlemen, we also have let me share the slide again. Apart from the nucleus ladies and gentlemen we have rival and the major functions of rival protein synthesis is respons protein manufacturing industry. When we say protein manufacturing industry it means it is a part of the cell where proteins are synthesized like hemoglobin is produced melanin is produced by the rule or by the work of ribos. So all the proteins that are found in our body withoutation and this ATP that we are talking about is the energy that provide us or that help us to carry out all mechanical works. And when we are talking about mechanical works ladies and even reading is a mechanical work.

[00:11:57]Even is also a mechanical a lot of mechanical works that are taking place in our body and it's as a result of this ATB. So it is produced in the mitochondria and then we have nucleolus. So the nucleodus is a produced. So please mark this point mark this point. I hope you are all jing. The nucleus produce ribosomes and ribosome is considered as a protein manufacturing industry and then we have endopplasmic reticulum.

[00:12:32]The major role of endoplasmic clone although it's divided into two. I also put this in record that the endopplasmic reticulum is divided into two. Number one we have what you call rough endopplasmic reticulum. As you can see it clearly from here we have what you call rough endopplasmic reticulum and then we have smooth endopplasmic reticulum. So the difference between rough and smooth endopplasmic reticulum I want you to write to also note this it is called rough endopplasmic reticulum because it is attached with the ribosome. So it is attached with the ribosome that is why it is called rough endopplasmic retrome and the smooth endopplasmic retros.

[00:13:22]So because of the ribosomes that attach to the rough endopplasmic the rough endopplasmic reticulum can be involved in protein synthesis. So it can be used to synthesize proteins and then for the smooth endopplasmic reticulum it involved in lipid met lipid synthesis.

[00:13:40]It is where in a cell lipid are produced and also at the same times it is very important in detoxification.

[00:13:50]In fact it is a site where drugs are metabolized. So when you take drugs for any disease, put also this in the record that drugs are metabolized and processed in the smooth of the liver. So please also put this on record. And then we have golic bodies, we have loss contain an enzymes and the name of the enzymes is please also this one is very important.

[00:14:21]Lyso Lysoyme that is the name of the enzyme that is found in the lysosome and very importantly this liysosyme where and where do we have lysosymes we have them out of the body like for example in tears tears is evolving immunity like for example if there is any bacteria that want to get into your body so some of them through your eyes because it is an opening so and the tears we have this lossy. So if there is bacteria this lossy usually degraded their cell therefore it will kill them. So the lysos usually degradates the cell and the cbrin of the bacteria thereby destroying them. And then in addition in our mouth we have saliva. It also got the lysosymes which to eliminate any for your body through mouth and then addition we have sperm cell. I think ladies and gentlemen, did you realize that naturally in opening in humans usually have a flu in the eyes we have tears through the nose we have mass we have in the mouth we have saliva our body they are highly rich in this loyos is an important enzymes that helps in the degradation and the breaking down of all bacteria that trying to get into our body.

[00:16:00]Lysosymes is present in the lossomes of soymes as you can see it contain enzymes waste and worn out cell parts. So if there is wanted material or any substance is not actually required by that cell.

[00:16:23]So it is the lios to break them from the body or anyone out cell parts or of the lysosomes to remove them. So in general ladies and gentlemen we want to look at the general functions of a cell. So it's provide protections of a cell. It provide protection of a cell.

[00:16:49]So it's very important in providing the protection because form a barriers which is known as a cell membrane which the body from injury and disease and then in addition have energy production which is also very important energy production. So what is energy?

[00:17:20]When we said energy productions ladies and gentlemen it's it is very clear that you should understand that uh and it is where the ATP is synthesized which considered as a powerhouse of a cell.

[00:17:40]this class I hope you are following please are you okay I think give me some whether yeah so but is the screen Clear?

[00:18:10]Is the screen clear to all of you?

[00:18:26]Some minutes.

[00:18:28]Let me try to Just give me some minutes.

[00:18:57]Okay. Um so let's continue from uh I think probably we are going to have stable network now.

[00:19:09]So let me share my screen.

[00:19:22]So you see um actually the lysosymes is part of the cells that actually retain an enzymes and the enzymes is called loymes and these enzymes it help in the digestion of any waste and worn out cell parts from the body. So you see the next one is growth and development. So as you can see one of the functions of the cells is for growth and development. So now the question is how organs grow, how body growth, how tissues growth is through two ways. We have two ways in which organs grow.

[00:20:19]Okay. So why would you growth and how do we develop? So usually there are two ways. We have some organs that we only grow when the number of increases. Like for example let's take our labor sets. So how liver cells grow is through the increase in a number of cell. So as you have a newborn baby their organs and the tissues are usually grow based on an increase in a number of cells and increase in cellular size.

[00:21:00]Although we have some cells in our body that they usually grow not by an increase in a number of cell. So that is why sometime when we are talking about growth when we define growth it mean irreversible increase in size. So that irreversible increase in size is contributed as like for example there are some cells in the body that usually well there are some organs and juice in the body that usually grow not because of the increase in a number as a result of an increasing number of size. Like for example, the brain cells, the heart cells are exactly the same as a number of cells that you were born with.

[00:21:53]So their number usually doesn't increase. They are exactly the same.

[00:21:59]If you are born with let's say 1 million brain cells, so the cells are going to remain the way they are. So they only grew by increasing in their sizes. So that is why sometimes having problem with brain having problem with heart is very difficult to treat because their cells are not regenerating and are not increasing in number and also repair and replacement. So usually cells divide to replace worn out or damaged cells. Like for example, if you have an injury, if you have an injury, the best way to treat that injury, ladies and gentlemen, is through.

[00:23:02]when there is actually an increase in those number of cells. So I just want you to understand that we grow and we develop our body develop and our body growth based on an increase in the number of cells. That is the most important thing that I want you to understand.

[00:23:20]So like let me just give you example. There are some even organs that they are naturally programmed. I've sometimes those organs they are going to die or sorry those cells they are going to die and replaced with another one and also the other one is metabolism. So cells are responsible for all chemical actions that are taking place in the body to sustain life.

[00:23:50]So when you said metabolism it means the sum total of all the chemical reactions that are taking place in our body. So there are millions of the actions that are taking place in our body all in also cells communicate using a chemical signals to coordinate body functions. So these are actually some of the functions of the cell. So now let's look at the cellular theory.

[00:24:19]So there is actually a foundation behind cells. We talk about that cells is a structural and the functional unit of life. There is no life without a cell.

[00:24:28]And if there is any problem with a cell, then there would be a problem with the speciology of the system. Like for example, if you have problem with liver cell, then you are going to have problem with the liver.

[00:24:46]Unless when those cells that have problem are replaced with new ones.

[00:24:51]So what is the theory? So there are actually three main foundation of life.

[00:24:58]The foundation of life lies on these three main principles of cellular theory. Like number one, the solaty is trying to explain that all living all living things or all living organisms are made up of cells and that cells are basic unit of life. Meaning that there is no any single living organism on earth that are not made up of cells. So as human you are living because of the number of cells that are found in your body.

[00:25:32]So that is the most important thing that we need to understand. So there is no life on earth without a cell. So cells is what make life possible. So it's considered as a basic unit of life. And then very importantly at the same time there are key scientists that formulates or that formulates this cellular theory. Number one we have to do in the 1839 he proposed that all animals are made of cells. So it's a scientist that actually said that any animals on earth are made of obsides between them is just a one year. So matisen will post that all plants are made of cell. So that is why the one are considered as a father of animal biology that is zoology and the matiden is considered as a father of mine. And then the next one is the Rudolph recall in the year 18.

[00:26:57]Okay. So your questions ago the question she asked that I should explain how cells grow based on or according to their numbers. You see when you born a baby in fact by looking at the journey of life it started from just sperm and an and egg cell where you have sperm fertilized egg and then you have a zygote and a zygote is just a single cell. So how that single cell as a zygote lead to embryoenesis that the synthesis or generation of embryo is through the division. So one cell divides into two 2 into 4 4 into 8 8 into 16 16 into 32. It will keep dividing through mitosis. So that increase in a number of cells is what lead to cellular growth and all body of each and every living organism grow as a result of this increase in number of cell and how these cells increase in number is through mitosis.

[00:28:02]But what I mentioned like for example you can born a baby of course with her liver.

[00:28:11]So probably at the point of the delivery the baby may have let's say 1 million liver cells but you know at that liver will keep growing. The liver will keep dividing and the liver of course will constantly be growing until when they reach the age of stop growing. So how the liver cells growth is by increasing and dividing those number of cells. So this liver cells will keep dividing two mitosis and that will lead to an increase in a number of cells in the liver. of course that subsequently lead to an increase in the growth of the entire liver as an organ tissue.

[00:28:55]So that is actually the answer to your questions.

[00:29:00]Regina echo and then addition I mentioned that there are some organs that they grow without dividing without an increase in the number of cell. What actually happened the cells would enlarge is as a result of the increase in a size of the cell. And examples of the organs that have such cells we have brain cells and the heart cells they are not increasing in number rather increase in size and that subsequently lead to the growth.

[00:29:33]Okay. So thank you. So now let's look at the three major main principles of the cellular theory. So number one, all living cells are made up of one or more cells. So all living cells that you know on earth are made up of at least one or more cells. So that actually lead to the foundation of the classification of cell.

[00:29:57]We have two classification of cell. We have unisellular and then we have multisellular. So there are organism that are considered as unisellular and they have only one cells and then we have multisellular that is those organism that have many cells like in the case of human bacteria have only one cell ammo have only one cellina have only one cell they are considered as a unicellular organism.

[00:30:25]So any living organism that we know on earth are made up of at least one or more cells and without that cells it means that is no living. And then the next theory is that okay someone is asking sir please can we classify red blood cells as a proariotic?

[00:30:54]No, red blood cell is not a proarotic cell because number one although red blood cells doesn't have nuculus and it doesn't have mitochondria but it has other membrane organals. So it cannot be classified as proarotic dola. So it's considered as ukarotic but although it doesn't have nucleus and membrane organ. So then now the second theory is that the cell is the basic units of structure and function in all living organisms. So the structure and the functions like for example let me just give you one example.

[00:31:39]Is the liver cell have the same structure with the brain cell? The answer is no. Is the fun is the fun have the same shape with the kidney? They are not the same. So the reason is because they have different cells. The cells in the kidney are different from the cells in the cells in the brain are different from the cells in the muscles. So because of those different cells that is why they have different structure. So cells is what determine the structure and function of all the living cells. Like for example when you take red blood cells it is responsible for the transport of oxygen and when you take liver cells is responsible for detoxification.

[00:32:36]So you see the functions and the structure of each and every living organism varies across the different organs. And what actually lead to different organs are the different cells and what lead to that different cells is because of the biomolelecules that are produced by each and every cells. Like for example the red blood cells is responsible for the transportation of oxygen throughout the body because of the hemoglobin.

[00:33:04]So the hemoglobin when you take the hemoglobin of the red blood cells is what give the red blood cells it is by coin chief shape and it is ability to transport oxygen throughout the body.

[00:33:18]And then second the brain shape um the brain's functions are not the same. Why?

[00:33:25]Because the cells that are found in the brain and that in the liver and the kidney are not the same. Like in the brain we have neurosytes, we have astroite, we have ganglioite. All these are the cells that are found in the brain and they have different functions and what make them to have different functions is because of the biomolecules the molecules that are found that is the metabolum.

[00:33:52]So that is why ladies and gentlemen doing biochemistry for any student alive in life and medical science is compulsory because those molecules is what give each and every organ the tissue and the cells different functions. If you didn't understand biochemistry of course you not have a full understanding of anatomy and physiology. That is why sometime we consider biochemistry as a language of life.

[00:34:23]So that is why we are doing biochemistry in order to study those molecules that are found in a cells to give them different functions and to give them different structure. So now the answer the question now let me just ask you this simple questions. What make one cells differ from one another? What make one organ differ from one another? And what make one tissue different from one another is their chemistry is their chemistry. And what is that chemistry is the biomolelecules.

[00:34:55]So that is the most important thing. And then the third theory is that all cells come from free existing cells.

[00:35:09]Meaning that liver cells are generating from existing liver cells. Like for example, you are not expecting to produce like human human cells. Sperm and X cells give rise to human and the sperm cell of monkey and the X cells of monkey give rise to monkey cells leading to formation of the entire monkeys.

[00:35:51]So that is what I want you to understand. So all cells come from three existing cells.

[00:35:58]So examples of these cells ladies and gentlemen we have plant animal fungi and microorganisms.

[00:36:05]So what are the importance of this cellular field theory? Number one it unifies biology.

[00:36:13]How? Because number one, it shows that it shows that all living organisms are built from the same basic unit that is the cell.

[00:36:33]So this theory biology that anywhere you go that every living organisms are built from a cell and it also lays a foundation for the basis of modern biology. It forms the foundation for genetics, physiology and medicine. So when you able when you are able to understand the concept of cell it will lay your condition in genetics in physiology and in medicine.

[00:37:07]Like for example I just let me just mention something. I just actually explain the different chemistry of different cells and different organs.

[00:37:19]What give red blood cell size? It is structural is hemoglobin and when you say structure it means anatomy.

[00:37:28]So anatomy is the story of structure of a body of living organisms especially internal structure.

[00:37:39]So it means if you understand biochemistry ladies and gentlemen you will understand that the ship mean that the anatomy of the liver the anatomy of the heart are built based on the biomolelecules that are found there.

[00:37:59]So that is the structure.

[00:38:02]So I want you to understand that understanding biochemistry will help you to translate anatomy and the physiology.

[00:38:14]So that's why if you are able to understand the foundation of cells, it will help you to have a basic understanding of genetics, physiology and medicine. And when we talk about medicine, we are talking about biochemistry, physiology and anatomy and also medical advances. So this it helps scientists to understand diseases, develop treatment and improve health.

[00:38:52]So that is also another things to look at. It advances medical field by understanding the diseases especially by understanding biochemistry. So if you are able to understand biochemistry you'll understand that most of the diseases have a biochemical consequences or have a biochemical basics. Sometimes is because of the deficiency of one protein mutation in one of the protein like cul anemia.

[00:39:30]So that is what you need to understand and of course most of the drugs that are develop they are either enzymes or protein inhibitors and understanding protein is biochemistry.

[00:39:44]So you need to understand this.

[00:39:46]So cells are everywhere.

[00:39:52]and they do amazing things and they come from other cells. So the theory all this cellular theory is trying to help us to understand the unity of life.

[00:40:09]So understanding biochemistry it will it will help you to understand life. It explains growth, reproduction and heredity in all living organisms.

[00:40:22]So now let's let's look at some breakthrough in biochemistry.

[00:40:27]So some of the breakthroughs in biochemistry and some of the discoveries that transformed life.

[00:40:36]So we have a lot of breakthroughs in biochemistry.

[00:40:40]So biochemistry is trying to explain the chemical processes of life.

[00:40:46]So these breakthroughs in biochemistry have shaped the modern biology, medicine and biotechnology.

[00:40:55]So let's look at the first breakthrough in biochemistry. Number one is the discovery of enzymes. Enzymes were discovered as a biological catalyst that speed off reactions in living organisms.

[00:41:09]I think on one of the videos that we covered last time, enzymes we discussed about enzymes that generally enzymes are biomolecules that speed the rate of the chemical reaction. But the question is how enzymes speed the rate of chemical reaction. Please can you write it on the can you write it? how enzymes speed the rates of chemical reactions because as we can see that of course biochemistry is trying to explain the chemical basis or the chemical processes of life. So now let's explain the breakthroughs that shaped the modern medicine the modern biology and biotechnology.

[00:41:58]So how enzymes excellent enzymes catalyze or speed the rate of the chemical reaction by lowering activation energy.

[00:42:13]So very importantly ladies and gentlemen understanding the enzymes is what even lead to one the discovery of drugs and diagnosis of so many diseases.

[00:42:28]So you can diagonize disease based on some enzymes like I think for some of you are aware of ALT and yes ALT that is the enzymes that are used in diagnosis of liver and there are many of them.

[00:42:51]So the scientist that was able or that discovered these enzymes is called anelium pan. The first enzymes scientist.

[00:43:03]So he isolated the enzymes. The name of the enzymes is dest 1833.

[00:43:15]And then the next one of course is the structure of the DNA.

[00:43:19]So James Watson and Francis Creek they are the scientists that discovered the double helix nature of the DNA. So if you look at the DNA is like a ladder and it is double helix. It is double stranded.

[00:43:39]So the DNA is trying to explain how genetics information is stored and transmitted.

[00:43:49]So I think if you could remember in some of our classes we discuss about how DNA is important in the transmission of information from parent to their offspring. If you are tall, short, skin color, all are the characters that can be inherited from our parent and that was actually contributed as a result of the DNA.

[00:44:16]So we have a gene that is responsible for controlling our skin color that is melanin gene. We have a genes that is responsible for our height.

[00:44:32]So we need to understand that.

[00:44:35]So the the the structure of the DNA is double helix and this double this double structure nature of the DNA explained how the genetics information is stored and transmitted.

[00:44:53]So the scientists that discovered this are James Watson and Francis Creek in the year 1953.

[00:45:02]And then the genetic codes. So usually remember ladies and gentlemen we have enzymes sorry we have proteins and proteins are made up of amino acids and remember part of what we discussed today we talk about the site where proteins are synthesized. Please can you tell me where proteins are synthesized in a cell? That is part of what we discussed today. Who can tell me where proteins are synthesized in a cell?

[00:45:40]Where do you synthesize protein in a cell?

[00:46:08]Yes.

[00:46:11]Where is the proteins are synthesized in a cell?

[00:46:16]Excellent. Proteins are synthesized in the ribosomes.

[00:46:22]So how these proteins are synthesized in the ribosomes is by using amino acids and how these amino acid are read is through this genetic code.

[00:46:35]So at this point ladies and gentlemen I don't want to uh talk more but I just want you to understand that we have this genetic cord and this genetic cord are responsible for coding different amino acids and they are usually in three plates.

[00:46:52]Three of them called for amino acid. As you can see from here you have a UG. This is Aug that is the starting cordon.

[00:47:06]So they actually called this amino acid methionine. And then we have G CU the C alanine and then we have UUA the lein. So these are the genetic code that are used or that are usually read from the messenger RNA to synthesize proteins and then so this genetic code are discovered in the year 1961 by Marshall Rimach and his colleagues. So the first codon identified is UU which called for amino acid called phenile alanine. So this has been done in the year 1961.

[00:47:53]And then the next one the next breakthrough in biochemistry is the structure of proteins. So the scientists that discovered the structure of the proteins of course protein structure were revealed explain how their shape determines their functions. So proteins have different shape. And it is that different shape of proteins that give them different functions.

[00:48:16]If you look at the shape, if you look at the structure of the protein, it is shape is like for example the shape of hemoglobin, it structure is different from that of myoglobin. The structure of some other important enzymes in our body that structure are different. So that different structures that proteins have that is why they have different functions. Like for example melanin is a protein, hemoglobin is a protein, myoglobin is a protein all of them are proteins but they have different shape and that different shape is what give them different functions. So in the 1960s a scientist called Max Peruts and John Kendri and others are the pioneer of protein crystalallography.

[00:49:03]So this scientist was able to discover the structure of the proteins using crystalallography techniques.

[00:49:12]And then another scientist of course is Khal Lman. So he's the first scientist that discovered ATP. The first ATP was discovered in the moles extracts and is it has been done by KL Lman. So you see the ATP that we talking about which is the energy currency the what the energy that produce in our that we produce in our body through metabolism in the mitochondria is discovered by Kman.

[00:49:45]Then the last one which is the most important one is human genome project.

[00:49:51]So the entire human genome was mapped and that actually opened new doors for medicine and biotechnology.

[00:50:01]So you see ladies and gentlemen in the olden days before 2003 understanding biology become very complicated.

[00:50:12]Understanding life, understanding the area of medicine and biochology has become very complicated till 2003.

[00:50:22]That is when the human genome project was conducted. That is when exactly the human genome sequences has been fully revealed because before then we are only talking about the DNA but we don't know the sequence of the nucleotides the latest that form the entire DNA we are not aware of that we don't know those letters we don't know them so till after the human genome project and this human genome project was conducted in the year 2003 that was actually when the human genome project was conducted in 2003.

[00:51:17]So because the human genome is very large, it's very large. It's very huge.

[00:51:24]It's very huge. So it's because it's it's actually become very difficult for one country to sequence the DNA to map it. So that is why the human DNA genome is broke it actually was broken down into I think six pieces. Some part was sent to Germany, some part sent to US, some sent to UK, some sent to China.

[00:51:56]So they are actually sent to like six different country and that is when they m each unable part of that DNA and later on they join them together and that is how they were able to have the entire human genome sequence.

[00:52:24]is made up of about three billion base pairs.

[00:52:30]Some of these things of course you might not probably understand them at this point but as we continue remember I think you may probably have some of this concept I told you that the DNA is made up of a nucleotides. So nucleotide are the building block of nucleic acids.

[00:52:51]nucleotides.

[00:52:54]So those nucleotide are the latest that are found in human DNA. Like now for example, let me just give you a simple example of importance and the application of this human gene. Before a lot of people's are suffering from secure cell anemia before 2003 nobody have an idea of how or the ethology of cle cell anemia until after the human genome project that is when scientists was able to understand that it's just a simple substitution a simple substitution of a nucleotides and that nucleotides is tying replaced with addin and as a result of that change of letters.

[00:53:52]That is why at one at a particular position of the hemoglobin chain generally hemoglobin is made up of four CH two alpac and two beta chain. So exactly at the position six of the beta chain glutamic acid is substituted with violin.

[00:54:32]So that's actually what changed the story and that is what leads to the skill cell hemoglobin and lead to the skill set anemia. So you see without understanding the human genome project nobody will have an idea of how this cle cell anemia happens or how or the basics and the ideology of the skill set I need.

[00:55:09]But since then after this human genome project it opens new doors for medicine and biotechnology.

[00:55:19]Go and check in 2013 is there any insulin injection for diabetes? No. till when the human genome project is fully mapped. That is when exactly scientists was able to know oh from this sequence of DNA from this sequence of DNA that is where we have a gene that code for insulin and that is when the scientist was able to cut to cut precisely that gene and use biotechnology approach to produce insulin. Also likewise adrenaline injection and all this insulin injection and a lot of other biotechnology products is because of understanding of the human genome and then very importantly after this human genome project like now we have gene therapy we have crisper technology with a crisper technology you can look at the human genome to understand where there is any problem maybe a substitution.

[00:56:34]So with crisper technology which I think in one of in the first video I think I talk about the crisper technology briefly and the gene therapy.

[00:56:47]So the crisper technology you can look at the human genome understand where there is a problem and then edit it and make a correction.

[00:57:00]So that is why peoples with the cris people with any kind of genetic disorder you can use crisp technology and make a corrections.

[00:57:16]Okay. Thank you very much Dola and Chida. Thank you very much.

[00:57:24]So that is what I want you to understand.

[00:57:29]You see after that the issue of human genome project.

[00:57:35]So that is what we call now we have molecular medicine, modern medicine, molecular medicine, regenerative medicine, personalized medicine, precision medicine all are as a result of this human genome project because sometimes you can individualize treatment based on the patients genome. So sometimes because currently we have what you call in 2003 the technology is still far behind but now I can take one person DNA genome and sequence it entirely in less than a day you can do that.

[00:58:24]But do you know one thing? Do you know how long it takes to complete human genome project?

[00:58:33]It started in 1990 and completed in 2003.

[00:58:44]So that means it took the scientists it took the scientists 13 years to complete human genome project.

[00:58:54]So it started it started in 1990 and completed in 2003.

[00:59:07]But now because of the advancement in technology in one day you can sequence the entire human genome.

[00:59:18]So that is why now if you have a patient you can just get the genome of the particular person and then sequence it entirely and understand his own genetics profile and individualize his treatment and that is actually the area of personalized medicine. You look at the genetic profile or physiological profile of an individual and you treat him based on his genetic profile and of course precision medicine like in most cases in most cases one of the major problem that we have that is why a lot of people are dying in Nigeria because of misdiagnosis and mistreatment.

[01:00:13]You can have people of the same age suffering from the same disease.

[01:00:33]So I want to tell you one very one very important information.

[01:00:41]See, I mentioned something I just forgot which is part of I just read one comment by it.

[01:00:53]Okay, you can have two patients of the same disease and the same age but to treat them equally or to give them the same treatment.

[01:01:13]Sometime it is very very wrong to do that because their genetics profile are not the same.

[01:01:25]Their genetic system and physiological system are not the same. Sometimes even their weight can be varies.

[01:01:38]So please it is always very important to diagonize a patient's get all important information his medical history before you give that person a treatment.

[01:01:56]So that is why individualizing treatment is very important very very important.

[01:02:04]So you see now we are talking about genetically modified crops or genetically modified organisms. GMOs is also based on human genome project. A lot of drugs have been developed because of the complete mount of the human genome project. So ladies and gentlemen why it matters is that these breakthroughs in biochemistry it first improved the understanding of life processes development of new drugs and vaccines.

[01:02:47]So because of some of this like for example the discovery of double helix nature of the DNA and the structure of the proteins the human genome project has of course lead to the development of many new drugs and vaccines and it advances the field of genetics and personalized medicine.

[01:03:12]It also lead to the understanding of the concept of reproduction and heredity in all living organisms and also diagnostics.

[01:03:23]So these breakthroughs continue to drive scientific discovery and improve human health and the quality of life. So you see I think if you look at all this thing from human genome project is the DNA the ATP is a biomolelecules the proteins of course is a biomolelecules the enzyme is also a biomolelecules. So you see we are using all these molecules and you are seeing how they are modernizing medical uh medicine.

[01:04:01]So that is what make modern medicine different from old medicine because of all this discovery.

[01:04:09]So biochemistry is important.

[01:04:12]So now do you know that ladies and gentlemen we are talking about cells that is where we started. But do you know that some of these cells they have lifespan?

[01:04:28]They have lifespan.

[01:04:30]Don't think oh you have red blood cells you have white blood cells let's say you have plaslet or liba cells they all have lifespan so after some time after some days some cells will are dying and then new ones are replaced like skins cells specifically.

[01:05:03]Well, let me just say different cells lifespan and they have also different roles. So, you should understand.

[01:05:17]So what I'm seeing here we have skin cells or you first the foundation here is that we have different cells.

[01:05:32]We have different cells and these different cells they also have different lifespan and they have different words.

[01:05:44]But let me just mention something very important. An average human being, average human being, we have about 37.2 trillion cells.

[01:05:55]That is what make an average human beings.

[01:05:59]And of course we have about 220 different cell types. So these are the different types of cells that we have in our body. But they are not that is why they are called different cell types.

[01:06:14]So we have 37.23 trillion cells which classified into which classified and differentiated into 220 different cell types and each of these different cells have their different lifespan.

[01:06:33]The time it takes white blood cells to die and replace with another one is not the same.

[01:06:41]The time it takes skin cells specifically epidemis to die and replace with another ones are different because they are all different cell. So cells in human have different lifespan depending on their functions and the rate of wear and tearing. But very importantly it's not every cell that have lifespan. We have some cells that they are exactly the same cells that we were born with like the brain cells, the heart cells. All are examples of cells that are exactly with the same cells that we were born with with.

[01:07:31]So let's look at the skin cells. The major functions of skin cells specifically if you die is to protect the body from injury, infection and water loss. So that is actually skin cells.

[01:07:45]So the lifespan of skin cells is between two to four weeks. So after about two to four weeks every what am I you said s please can you explain again what do you mean specifically so after like two to four weeks all the skin cells will die and then they will be replaced with another one but do you know when they are dying no Because the date of these cells are programmed they undergo what you call apoptosis that is program cell death. So after every two to four weeks the epid the epidemis will die and replace with another one.

[01:08:42]Intestinal cells their lifespan is between 3 to 5 days and the major functions of this intestinal like epithelial cells they absorb nutrient and help in digestion.

[01:08:56]So their lifespan is between 3 to 5 days. So after 3 to 5 days cells are dying. So the cells the intestinal cells will die and then replace with another one. The red blood cells of course this is well known is 120 days and look at the white blood cells.

[01:09:16]Remember we have different white blood cells. So it depend on the types of the white blood cells. Some white blood cells it takes or generally it's between these two. Yes.

[01:09:30]But it depend on the type. Like for example the neutral fields is an examples or is one of the type of white block size. So usually between hours to day to days between hours to days white sorry neutros are dying and are replaced with another one now I say average human being an in average human being average human being we have about 37.2 two trillion cells.

[01:10:01]That is what I said.

[01:10:04]But when we're talking about the human lifespan, it varies varies across the countries. The lifespan of human in Nigeria is not the same with the lifespan of human in other part of the world. And that depend on the environment number one and the food that we are taking. Let me just say lifestyle generally because our lifestyle varies with the lifestyle of other people from other part of the world.

[01:10:35]So that is why you don't expect our lifespan to be this.

[01:10:41]So like lymphocytes it take years for them to die and the monocytes is between these two month. So it actually depend on the types of the white blood cells. And then we have platlets. So the platlet have a lifespan between 7 to 10 days. And the major functions they have in the clothing and the lifespan of the liver cells is between 300 to 500 days.

[01:11:14]So you see look at the nav cells that is neurons their lifespan is what lif time.

[01:11:26]So that is what you need to understand.

[01:11:35]So that is the most important things for you to understand here. So then I think this is just on a lifespan. Then the next thing of course is more is on the issue of the sizes of the cell.

[01:11:59]The question is are cells have the same sizes? the size of the white blood cells, the size of the sperm cell, the size of the naps are they the same.

[01:12:12]So that is also of course another very important area. So generally cells varies in size. The cells usually do not have the same sizes.

[01:12:28]So that is what I want you to understand.

[01:12:55]So let's of course look at the different cellular sizes.

[01:13:08]Please I hope you are following. Did you have do you have any questions before you proceed?

[01:13:25]Listen, do you have any questions?

[01:13:39]Okay.

[01:13:42]So, let's look at the different sizes of a cell of different cells.

[01:13:55]So, let's look at this.

[01:13:58]So, sizes of cells in humans from smallest to largest. So, cell in the human come in a wide range of sizes. And here is the order from smallest to the largest. That is actually what we are going to look at. Look at it here. The red blood cells that is retro the sizes is between 7 to 8 microl sorry micrometers.

[01:14:25]Look at platelets 2 to 4 micrometer.

[01:14:30]Sperm cell 5 to six.

[01:14:34]Then of course look at the nav cell. The nav cells is about up to 1 meter.

[01:14:40]So this is for you to understand ladies and gentlemen cell have different sizes.

[01:14:47]So as you can see from here which one have the smallest size the smallest size. Look at it very well.

[01:14:57]Although if you check your co material the co material look at it they will tell you that the smallest size found in humans is sperm cell but the answer is no.

[01:15:21]So as you can see from here but I think you can use what you have from the material but the reality is that plat is the smallest size even from here you can see is 2 to four microL and then the largest is naps.

[01:15:42]So that is for you to understand that even the cells have different sizes.

[01:15:53]So uh ladies and gentlemen, I think we can stop here. This is just going to have a foundation of cells. The foundation of cells and what it's all about and we uh actually going to continue later unless if you have any questions. So if you have any questions you can ask before we close for today. Any questions?

[01:16:36]I think You can mention the two.

[01:16:48]Yeah, of course. Um, okay. Yes. Terror when you check when you check in your cosmic material, they will tell you that the X cell is the largest and the sperm cell is the smallest. That is what is in your course material. But as you can see from here 1 m and 150 micrometer is not the same.

[01:17:19]So just pick from the co material or maybe you can give the two and the sizes and of course it may make a significant sense.

[01:17:34]So genetic code there are code you see uh yeah there are codes that use for that use usually in protein synthesis.

[01:17:48]So three genetic code usually give one amino acids.

[01:17:56]So usually this genetic code are coming from messenger RNA.

[01:18:01]So you usually use messenger RNA to synthesize your protein but we are coming to that but at this stage I don't want to give that detailed explanation.

[01:18:26]So I think if there is no any questions ladies and gentlemen we are going to stop here.

[01:18:36]Yeah.

[01:18:37]If there is not any questions you can ask.

[01:18:45]Okay. No problem. I will send the course material.

[01:18:49]And don't forget that in this YouTube channel there are videos for other courses like physiology, anatomy, biostatistics. So for those that are interested, you can always watch from the channel. So thank you very much ladies and gentlemen.

[01:19:12]See you next