J2026 A LEVEL CHEMISTRY SECTION A

[00:00:00]All right, this is Niyake. This is Niyake Host Tutorials and today we are going to revise the June 2026 A-level chemistry from the Zimsec exam board as you can see on the screen, right? So, if you haven't checked on our playlist, I'll be providing massive revisions in all the sciences. So, what you only need to do is to subscribe so that you'll be notified whenever whenever we post. So, today we're simply going to discuss [music] uh on the physical chemistry number two.

[00:00:22]And if you're doing Zimsec, you need to always remember to pay attention to these instructions to the candidates.

[00:00:27]And uh we are starting with number two.

[00:00:28]In our previous tutorial, we did number one. And if you haven't checked, you need to do so, right? So, here we are on number we are on number two. All right, so we're simply going to dissect uh this number two step by step, highlighting all the concepts, highlighting all the fundamentals so that you can easily comprehend uh the objectives of your syllabus, right? So, here uh the first part requires us to distinguish between bond length and bond polarity. We [music] are going to distinguish between bond length and bond polarity. So, in our previous uh tutorial, we explained the issue of bond length with respect to bond uh to bond energy. So, now we're being examined also with bond polarity, right? So, we said bond length is defined as the average distance between the nuclei of two atoms bonded together, right? So, here if you have to have atom A and then here we are having atom B, the distance between the two So, this one is the nucleus. This one is the nucleus, [music] right? So, this the distance between these two nuclei is what you call the bond uh the bond length, right? The average distance between uh the nuclei of two bonded atoms. Are we together? And then bond polarity, it is when we are simply going to have uh uneven distribution of electrons between two atoms which are bonded covalently bonded together because of their difference in the electro- in the electronegativity, right? [music] So, if you have to have atom A bonded to atom B and then atom B has got a higher electronegativity compared to this atom A, we're simply going to have the bond being being polar. So, here we are simply going to have the atom uh B which is more electronegative attracting all the electrons towards itself to attain a partial negative charge. And then this one will attain a partial positive charge. So, here we are simply going to have the the dipole moment. Are we together? So, you must always uh be able to define what is meant by the term electronegativity. So, electronegativity is defined as the tendency or the ability of an atom to withdraw the bonding bonding electrons [music] towards itself, right? So, we said bond polarity, we're simply going to have a situation where we're simply going to have a symmetrical distribution of electrons due to the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms involved in the covalent bond. Thereby, we're simply going to have these charges, the partial negative and the partial positive. Are we together? And then now we go on to the next part.

[00:02:21]>> [music] >> So, the next part says define the dative bond and the hydrogen hydrogen bonding.

[00:02:25]So, a dative bond is defined as a type of bond where we're simply going to have one atom donating all the electrons to be to be shared. So, one atom is acting as the donor and then the other one is acting as the receiver. So, this one is only receiving electrons to be shared and this one is only donating both the electrons to be to be shared, right? So, here in terms of biology, this one is what we call a parasitic relationship where one atom is only benefiting and the other one is simply going to to donate. Are we together? In terms of your examination, you should know the molecules where we're simply going to have the dative bonding. So, for example, having ammonia which has a lone pair of electron and then it's simply going to donate it to boron trifluoride which has got an electron deficient it has got six electrons in the outermost shell. So, it needs to attain the octet configuration having eight electrons in the outermost shell. So, we're simply going to make use of the lone pair on the on the ammonia, right? So, this one is our ammonia, right? With the trigonal pyramidal shape of bond angle 107, right? So, we want to make use of this lone pair of electron, right? So, we can also make we can also have a dative bond in ammonium ion. So, this one, ammonium ammonium ion. So, in terms of ammonium ion, we're simply going to have this lone pair again donated to the proton, right? So, a proton we're having ammonia plus the proton to give uh to give the ammonium the ammonium ion, right? So, hydrogen has got one electron, right? So, hydrogen has got one electron. So, this positive sign indicates that it has got lost the electron. So, hydrogen is coming to bonding without an electron. So, we're simply going to have hydrogen receiving both the electrons from this lone pair.

[00:03:47]So, here we're having this one is our ammonium ammonium ion, right? So, here we're having this one is our ammonium ammonium iodate and then we have we have the positive positive charge. Are we together? You can also know the the dative bonds in the oxides of nitrogen right? A nitronium ion, a nitrate ion and etc. You should know these are the dative cross of these of these ions. Are we together? And also you should understand that a dative bonding it is a method used by period period two elements to avoid the expansion of octet. Only the period two elements are the ones which are going to be involved in dative bonding. Why? Because they want to avoid uh the expansion of the octet, right? So we're simply going to period two elements and then from phosphorus going onwards we are simply going to have the expansion of the octet. Are we together? So here it doesn't expand octet. Why? Because it doesn't have accessible d d orbitals, right? Are we together? So you must know these inside inside out, right? And then let us go to hydrogen hydrogen bonding, right?

[00:04:41]So hydrogen bonding is formed when hydrogen is bonded directly bonded directly to one of the most electronegative elements nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine. So these are the most electronegativity elements. So when we are to have hydrogen bonded directly to one of these most electronegative elements and the most electronegative element they must be at least one lone pair of electrons. Are we together? So the criteria in which we are to have the formation of the hydrogen bonds, we need to have hydrogen bonded directly to one of the most electronegative elements which bears at least one lone pair of electrons.

[00:05:13]Right? So that's what we only need in the formation of of hydrogen bonds. And also [music] you should give this significance of the hydrogen bonds especially in water where we are to have the liquid water being converted into ice which is solid water. So ice tends to have the tetrahedral open structure.

[00:05:28]So having the change in shape, so here it is bent and then in the ice it is a tetrahedral shape and the bond angle of 109.5, right? So here you should know how we are simply going to have ice being less dense than than liquid water.

[00:05:39]So ice is less dense than liquid water.

[00:05:41]Why? Because ice it tends to form an open tetrahedral shape. And so here we are having oxygen in terms of water, right?

[00:05:48]So here we're having the two lone pairs of electrons. This one partially negative cuz it is highly electronegative. This one partially positive, partially positive, right? And then we're simply going to clear here.

[00:05:58]And then we're simply going to have this one having oxygen and then H here and then H here. The two lone pairs. And then we're simply going to have this one partially positive, this one partially positive, partially negative, right? So, we're simply going to have the electrostatic force of attraction between negative electron cloud and these are partially positive hydrogen atoms, right? So, here we're having this, what you call [music] the hydrogen hydrogen bond. So, as you can see, we have a distorted tetrahedral open shape. So, this one is why ice is said to be less dense than liquid water.

[00:06:27]So, you should be able to give a reason why ice is simply going to float. So, ice is simply going to float on the surface of water. Why? Because of this open tetrahedral shape. Are we together? So, these are the most frequently examined questions. So, you must know these facts by heart. You must know these facts by by heart. Are we together? So, let us uh proceed on to the next part.

[00:06:45]Let us easily proceed uh to the next part, right? So, [music] the next part says uh explain each of the following.

[00:06:51]Explain each of the following observations, right? So, the first one uh it says a white solid is simply going to be produced when methylamine and hydrogen chloride gas are simply going to be to be mixed, right? So, if we had to have methylamine, if we had to have uh methylamine reacting with hydrogen chloride gas, we are simply going to have methylammonium chloride, right? So, this one uh we're simply going to have this one as the base, right? And then this one is the acid, right? So, the acid is defined as a proton donor and the base receives the the proton.

[00:07:18]Are we together? So, this one it acts as a base cuz it tends to have a lone pair which can accept which can donate a bond with the with the protons like we've alluded to when we explained the issue of the formation of the ammonium ion, right? So, that's the same scenario here. We're simply going to have uh the formation the protonation of this amine again, right? And then here we're simply going to form methyl This one is methylammonium chloride, right? So, here CH3H [music] So, since we've added this proton, we're simply going to have three here, so it's H3. And then we have the chloride ion light. So, this one is positive. Then we have this chloride chloride ion. Are we together?

[00:07:49]>> [music] >> And then that's how we are simply going to have the the white solid of methylammonium chloride, right? And then we go on to the next part. We go on to the next part. So, the second part says nitrogen fluoride doesn't react with with water. So, I am required to give the reason why this nitrogen trifluoride doesn't react with water, right? So, we are simply going straight to the chemistry of the nitrogen trihalides.

[00:08:10]So, it's the nitrogen trihalide.

[00:08:13]All right, so the chemistry of the nitrogen trihalides. So, we are starting with nitrogen as the the main atom, the central atom. And then what is varying here, these are the halogens, the group seven elements, right? So, we start with fluorine, we go to chlorine, we go to bromine, and then we have iodine. So, we are simply going to have these atoms simply varying, right? So, the chemistry of the nitrogen trihalides is similar to the hydrogen halides of of the group seven, right? So, you should know that that's the chemistry, it is similar. So, as you move as you go down the group, we are simply going to have molecules becoming less less stable. They are simply going to become less stable, more explosive.

[00:08:47]And also they are becoming more reactive with water as you go down the group, right? So, you should know that the chemistry is of the nitrogen trihalides and that one of the higher halides is similar, are we together? So, here we are having the increment in the atomic size as you go down the group. Atomic size is simply going to increase.

[00:09:02]Meaning to say we are going to have poor orbital overlap, which will result in the bonds becoming longer and and weaker. [music] So, here we are simply going to have the bonds becoming longer and weaker as you go down the group. So, here we are starting with nitrogen trifluoride. So, fluorine is very very small. Meaning to say the nitrogen to fluorine bond is very very strong, right? Because of the effective orbital overlap and then the bond is shorter and stronger, right? So, we are simply going to have this bond being shorter and stronger here. So, here it doesn't react with with water because the nitrogen to fluorine bonds are very very strong, right? They are very very stable, right?

[00:09:33]Are we together? So, here reactive Our with water is simply going to increase >> [music] >> as you go down the group. So, we're simply going to have the production of ammonia and what you call the hypohalous acid. Are we together? So, we're having the production of ammonia and the hypo the hypohalous acid, right?

[00:09:47]So, here we're simply going to have this. So, we're simply going to have NX3, right? The nitrogen trihalide plus water. And then we're simply going to have ammonia, right? And then the hypohalous acids, right? So, we're going to have this one.

[00:10:01]Then here we have the the X, which is the hydrogen. Are we together? [music] And then to balance this equation, we simply need to have a three and then a three there. Right? So, this one is the equation for the hydrolysis reaction of the nitrogen trihalides with with water, right? So, we are simply going not to have a reaction with nitrogen fluoride trifluoride. Why? Because of the strongness of this bond due to the excellent orbital overlap. Are we together? And now it is also similar to that one of the hydrogen halides where we're simply going to have the increase in the acidity as you go down the group, right? So, as starting with hydrogen fluoride, we're going to hydrogen chloride, we're going to hydrogen bromide, and then lastly we have hydrogen iodide. Right? So, we're simply going to have uh acidity increasing as you go down the group. Why? Because of the uh poor orbital overlap uh which weakens this bond and we're simply going to have the proton readily available for donation. So, an acid is defined as a proton donor. So, we're simply going to have the ability uh to donate protons increasing as you go down the group.

[00:10:50]That's why acidity increases as you go down the group. Here the bond is very very strong due to uh effective or excellent orbital overlap. As you go down the group, orbital overlap is simply going to be poor and then the bonds are simply going to be longer and weaker. Are we [music] together? So, the bonds are simply going to be longer and weaker as we move down the group. Are we together? So, you should understand uh the issue of nitrogen trihalides and also the hydrogen halides. You should know the chemistry of these compounds.

[00:11:13]Are we together? The next part says that the boiling point of stannane, this one, uh is this uh -52, whereas that one of silane, this one, is equal to -112.

[00:11:24]Right? So, these are the group four tetra tetrahydrides, right? The tetra uh hydrides, right? So, you must know all trends of the tetrahydrides inside inside out. So, I have given the issue of boiling points. So, we said whenever you are dealing with the physical properties, the first thing you need to do is to identify the lattice. You need to go for the lattice structure, right?

[00:11:42]And then from the lattice structure, you go for the lattice forces, right? The lattice forces are the intermolecular forces, right? So, here in terms of the lattice structure, these uh tetrahedrals, they exhibit a simple molecular a simple molecular lattice structure where we are simply going to have all the molecules held together by the van der Waals van der Waals forces or the London forces or the instantaneous dipole dipole moments, right? So, these are the intermolecular forces present in the tetrahedrals. So, here we are given the trend. We want to explain the trend in the group four. So, [music] the issue dealing with van der Waals forces, we must know what affects the strength of the van der Waals forces. So, the strength of the van der Waals forces is easily affected by the molecular molecular size, not molecular mass. You need to also write that one note, molecular mass, it's molecular size, not mass. And also, we need to also to have the issue where we are going to have the number of electrons and then the contact [music] points, especially when dealing with organic compounds, right? So, here we are having the number of the molecular size, the number of electrons, and then the contact points, right? So, as you go down the group in the group four tetrahedrals, we are simply going to have the increment in the molecular size as you go down the group. And then, we are also having the increase in the number of electrons as you go down the group, right? So, this means simply mean to say we are simply going to have the intensity or the strength of the van der Waals forces being stronger as you go down the group. Thereby, we are simply going to require a lot of energy during boiling. That's why uh this stannane is going to have a higher boiling point compared to this silane. Are you together? You must know these trends.

[00:13:02]You must be able to uh to explain these trends by by heart. Are you together?

[00:13:06]And also, another frequently examined questions uh being examined on the stability of these uh group four tetrahedrals. So, having methane, so this one is our methane. So, methane is uh the stable one. Going down the group, so stability decreases as you go down the group. Why? [music] So, as you go down the group, uh we are having the increment in the atomic size of the group four elements, right? So, we are having hydrogen as the constant atoms, right? So, what is changing, what is varying uh these group four elements, right? So, as you go down the group, we are starting with carbon, we are going to silicon, and then we are going to germanium, and then we are going to tin, and then we are going lastly to telluride, right? So, as you go down the group, we are going to have the increment in the atomic [music] size.

[00:13:39]And yet, we are using the constant hydrogen atom. So, as you can see, the atomic orbital overlap as you go down the group is simply going to be poor because of the increment in the atomic size. So, we are simply going to have poor poor orbital overlap, right? So, this will result in the bond being weaker as you go down the group.

[00:13:54]>> [music] >> We are simply going to have the reduction in the in the stability, right? So, stability is simply going to be reduced as you go down as you go down the group, right? And then, we now need to also to explain what else do we need to highlight here.

[00:14:06]What else do we need to highlight?

[00:14:09]So, we explained to the issue of bond length with a bond energy when we did number one so here. That's the same concept. Longer bonds weaker, shorter bonds are stronger. So, as you go down the group, due to the poor atomic orbital overlap, we are simply going to bond to have the bonds being longer and weaker, and then here earlier in the group, we are simply going to have the bonds being shorter and strong. Are we together? So, here let us simply proceed at the next part.

[00:14:32]So, let me clear this one.

[00:14:33]Let me clear this one so that you can easily proceed to number to this one, right?

[00:14:38]>> [music] >> So, here we are told that we are having 2 3 dihydroxy methyl benzene having a lower melting point than 2 5 dihydroxy methyl benzene. So, we are simply going to start by drawing 2 3 dihydroxy methyl benzene. So, we need to have our methyl benzene here.

[00:14:51]So, we are having the methyl benzene here, right? So, this one our methyl benzene, and it's [music] 2 3 dihydroxy, right? So, it's 2, this one is 1. So, we are having this one on position number number two. So, we are having our H here, and then we have the lone pairs of electrons here. And then here, we are having this is 2 3, right? So, here on position number three, we are simply going to have another one. So, here position number number three, we are having H here, and then having the two lone pairs of electrons. And then here, so this one, we do the same.

[00:15:20]We are simply going to have uh, another color. So, this one is 2 5, right? Is 2 5, right? As you can see. So, here we're having the methyl group, and then we're having methyl benzene, the benzene ring, right? And then we're having our methyl group here, right? So, it's 2 5, so here on position number two, then we're going to have again H and then the two electrons here, and then 2 3 4 5, right?

[00:15:42]So, on this one, position number number five, we are going again to have the two lone pairs of electrons, right? So, this one you can easily appreciate that we're going to have hydrogen bonded directly to one of the most electronegative element, which is the oxygen atom. So, we're simply going to have the most electronegative element bearing at least one lone pair of electrons. So, when we did at the criterion which we are to form the hydrogen bonds, we said we need to have hydrogen bonded directly to one of the most electronegative element, which bears at least one lone pair of electrons.

[00:16:11]Right? So, as you can see, these are both molecules, they have the ability, uh, they have the tendency to form hydrogen bonding, right? Both are having hydrogen here bonding to directly to this electronegative element, which is oxygen. And then we have again this hydrogen bonded to this oxygen, right?

[00:16:25]So, here we need to take note where the difference is, right? You need to understand where we are simply going to have the difference >> [music] >> in the boiling point, yet the two molecules here got the ability to form hydrogen bonds. Are we together? So, here in the first, uh, molecule, the two the two three, we're simply going to have the formation of what you call the intra So, here we have the intra hydrogen bonding. [music] What do you understand by the intra hydrogen bonding, right? So, here we're having this oxygen atom attaining a partial negative charge, because it is the one which is more electronegative, and then this one attaining a partial positive charge.

[00:16:54]We're simply going to have the attraction between this electron cloud and this positively charged hydrogen atom, right? So, here we're having the uh, hydrogen bonds here. So, these are what you call the intra hydrogen bonding. And then here we're having we're having the formation, uh, of what you call the inter hydrogen bonding, right? The inter hydrogen These ones are what you call the intra The formation of hydrogen bonding within itself, right?

[00:17:14]So, the the molecule is forming hydrogen bond within itself. And then here the molecule is forming hydrogen bond between with the other molecules, right?

[00:17:21]So this one is within and then this one is between.

[00:17:24]Are you together? So that's where the whole difference is. So here we're simply going to have the difference in the in the location of the hydrogen bonds. So here the hydrogen bonds are located within the molecule and then here between the molecules. Are we together? So that's where the whole difference is, right? So here we're simply going to have the intra intra and then here we're having the intra. So we said when we are ever we're explaining the physical properties, we start by going to the uh to the lattice structure, we start by going to the lattice structure. So they both exhibit a similar molecular lattice structure and then you go to the lattice forces.

[00:17:51]So here we're having the intra. So lattice forces are the intermolecular forces, right? So here we're having the intermolecular forces being the hydrogen bonds which are which are stronger. And then here we're having the lattice forces being the van der Waals forces, right? So the hydrogen bonds are the intramolecular forces, not the inter.

[00:18:06]Are we together? So that's where the whole difference is. So that's why uh this one the 2 5 is simply going to have a higher boiling point compared to this the 2 3. Are we together? Pause this one forms the intra, this one forms the inter. And then when we were dealing with boiling, we separate the intermolecular forces. So here the energy required to separate the molecules is high because of the forces between the molecules which are the hydrogen bonds. Then here the forces between the molecules are the van der Waals the weak van der Waals forces. Are we together? And we're and we are done.

[00:18:31]Then the next part says graphite with a melting point of about 400. So the melting point is 4,000 not 400. So this one is a typo. Uh is used is not used uh in the furnace in the furnace lining. So why are we not using graphite in the furnace lining? So graphite is allotrope of carbon. Graphite and diamond, you need to know these two by heart. The difference between graphite and diamond.

[00:18:50]You must know these two by heart. You should go in our topic of playlist so that you can fully understand the difference and the chemistry of these two allotropes. Are we together? So here uh we're told that uh graphite is simply not going to be used though it has got a high melting point, right? So graphite exhibit a giant They exhibit a giant hexagonal giant hexagonal layered layered structure layered structure where we're are going to have the strong network of strong covalent bonds formed by the head-on overlap of the sp2 hybridized orbital to form a network of strong covalent bonds which extends throughout the structure. So, we are simply going to have these two hybridized orbital head-on overlap and then we are going to be left with an unhybridized p orbital [clears throat] which will then uh form a series of delocalized electrons between the layers and then we are simply going to have weak van der Waals forces holding the layers. That's why the layers are simply going to slide to pass over each other because of these weak van der Waals forces between the layers. Are you together? That's why graphite is said to be used as a lubricant. [music] And then in in diamond, the allotrope we are having the sp3 hybridization. We are simply going to have the formation of four bonds, right? So, we are simply going to have the formation of four bonds. Here we are having each carbon atom forming three bonds, 1 2 3.

[00:19:52]>> [music] >> Are you together? So, you must know the difference of the of these two allotropes, right? And then here we have this uh diamond graphite exhibiting the giant layered mono-layered structure whereby we are simply going to have the strong covalent bonds extending throughout the structure. So, why are we not using it uh as a lining in the furnaces? Because it tends to have a high melting point. So, why are we not using it? So, that's why the whole question is, why are we not using graphite? Are we together? So, here we are simply going to have graphite containing carbon, right? So, it since it is an allotrope of carbon, it contains obviously [music] it contains carbon, right? So, at high temperatures in the furnaces we are simply going to have oxygen. So, here we are simply going to have carbon plus oxygen to give carbon dioxide, right? So, as you can see, we are simply going to have the formation of carbon dioxide. So, as the reaction progresses, all the graphite is simply going to be consumed because of this oxygen the presence of oxygen and then we are simply going to have carbon carbon dioxide. Are we together? So, as you can see, the furnace lining is simply going to be constantly constantly repaired because carbon is being consumed by this reaction. So, we are simply going to avoid uh using carbon because of this reaction which forms carbon carbon dioxide. We can also have the formation of carbon monoxide whereby this produced uh carbon dioxide will react with uh this carbon to give carbon monoxide. Are we together? And then we go on to the next part. We go on to the next uh the next part which is number which is number C. Number C says, "State any two properties of ceramics, right?"

[00:21:08]Any two properties of of ceramics. So, the first thing we need to define what is meant by the term ceramic. So, ceramics are simply ionic They're simply ionic or a giant covalent or a giant covalent materials whose use I'm simply going to depend on their strength, use [music] will depend on their strength, resistance to heat, and chemical inertness, [music] chemical inertness, and their insulation properties, right? Chemical inertness, and their insulation insulation properties. So, they can be electrical insulators or heat insulators, right? So, their insulation properties or character characteristics.

[00:21:43]Are we together? And then we're simply going to have the two properties. So, this definition gives all the properties. So, I'm simply going to have strength, >> [music] >> resistance to heat, chemical inertness, insulation properties. Are we together?

[00:21:54]So, the next part says, "Relate each of the property to use of the ceramics."

[00:21:58]So, you want to relate to the use. So, let me clear here so that you can have the full question more clearer, right?

[00:22:03]So, here we want to have the use. So, in terms of high melting point, it is simply going to ceramics are simply going to be used in lining of the lining of furnaces, right? Lining of furnaces. And then because they can withstand high high temperatures, right? And then also because of its good insulating electro insulation properties, it should simply going to be used in spark in spark plugs, right? In spark plugs.

[00:22:26]And then also in insulating electrical transmission lines, right? Insulating electrical electrical transmission transmission lines, right? Because of their insulating properties, right? And then because of their chemical inertness, they're simply going to be used as chemical storage vessels, right? So, because of inertness, we can use it as chemical storage vessels, right? [music] And then because also of their hardness, they can be used as cutting cutting tools. So, cutting tools, right? And then because of their thermal insulation, they can be used as the heat resistant tiles or furnace bricks, [music] right? So, heat resistant tiles or furnace bricks, right?

[00:23:03]Or finish bricks because of the thermal insulation. Are we together? And we are And we are done, right? So, always remember Always remember to subscribe so that you can be notified whenever we post, right?

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